Union Grievance Process Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Union Grievance Process - Research Paper Example Union Grievance Process â€Å"A grievance is defined within a collective bargaining agreement (CBA). In general, a CBA may establish that a grievance arises when an employer violates a provision of the CBA, state or federal law, or "past practice"†(Johnson). More precisely, grievance is a written complaint registered by the employee about his employment right violations. This paper analyses various dimensions of union grievance process. Even though the term collective bargaining is quiet familiar to us, it was first used by the renowned economist Sidney Webb in 1891. However, the term collective bargaining gained prominence in the nineteenth century when trade unions were started to evolve in organizational world. Since grievance is accommodated within the CBA’s, the case of grievance or Union Grievance Process was also evolved along with the CBA’s. In fact, by 1944 the Bureau of Labor Statistics showed that 73% of all labor contracts in America contained arbitration clauses and by the early 1980’s that figure had grown to 95%. The purposes of grievance procedures are; â€Å"To resolve disputes arising in the workplace, To provide contract interpretations, To protect the employees' and union's negotiated contract rights, To establish precedent, To ensure uniform treatment of employees, To maintain relative peace in the workplace†(Processing Grievances, p.502). It is difficult for an employee to work positively if he feels that some of his employment rights were disallowed by the employer. Same way it is impossible for the employer to ensure better productivity from the employees if the employer fails to keep positive relationships with the employees. Grievances help both the employer and the employee to settle their issues and strengthen their cooperation for mutual benefits. In other words, grievances are not only beneficial to the employees, but also to the employer. In most of the cases, employee will try to settle the issues with his employer directly or individually. However, in some cases, it c ould be difficult for the employee to argue present his arguments successfully in front of the employer. For example, if an employer dismisses or suspends an employee without genuine reasons, it is difficult for the employee to convince the employer with his arguments. If the employee is a trade union member, he will try to solve his problems with the help of the union, in such circumstances. When a trade union, negotiates with the employer to solve the problems of an employee or group of employees, the process will be referred as union grievance process. â€Å"The grievance process enforces the collective bargaining agreement, which establishes the memberships' terms and conditions of employment† (Johnson). Grievances are taking place in all the departments of an organization even though the details of some of them could be kept confidential. Union grievance process consists of certain procedures. The case of union grievance process begins when an employee approaches his imm ediate supervisor with a problem, dispute or employment right violation complaint. â€Å"If an employee brings forward an alleged violation of the collective agreement, the

The fall of the Iron curtain in the 1990s Essay Example for Free

The fall of the Iron curtain in the 1990s Essay The fall of the Iron curtain in the 1990s brought a close to a chapter in history that brought the world to the brink of global nuclear-armed conflict. However, at the dawn of the 21st century President George W. Bushs administration is poised to reopen that chapter by pursuing a unilateral defense posture that will only serve to modernize and expand current nuclear war fighting capabilities and break the taboo of nuclear non-use. This paper will argue that the failure of the United States to ratify the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty (CTBT) as well as the pursuit of a National Missile Defense (NMD) will lock the United States back into its Cold War security dilemma in which striving to increase security breeds more insecurity. CTBT Since the 1950s, opposition to nuclear testing has been spurred by concerns over its health and environmental effects and by testing being one of the more visible signs of the nuclear arms race. Most recently, in 1995-1996, massive worldwide criticism of French nuclear tests in the South Pacific, caused France to curtail its test program. Public opposition and the dangers of an arms race fueled by nuclear testing have lead governments to try to limit and stop nuclear testing for over 40 years. However, in 1999 the United States Senate refused to implement the CTBT, which would have put an end to nuclear weapons testing and development. The United States failure to ratify the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty guarantees a future end to the ten-year moratorium on testing. The events of September 11th and the subsequent war on terrorism have the Bush administration searching for new options on the battlefield. Recently the administration began studying options for the development and production of a small, low-yield nuclear weapon called a bunker-buster which would burrow into the ground to destroy buried hideaways of rogue leaders like Saddam Hussein or Osama Bin Laden. This pursuit not only guarantees no chance of the CTBT ever coming into law in the US but it also guarantees the breakdown in the firewall between conventional warfare and nuclear warfare. Using nuclear weapons in conventional warfare guarantees the escalation of conflict that would spiral out of control and only serve to hurt future arms reductions negotiations. The development of low yield nuclear weapons is also likely to spur a new arms race between the US and Russia because of an increased reliance on tactical nuclear weapons, in which the concept of Mutually Assured Destruction is no longer employed as deterrence but as procedure. 1 Therefore the United States effort to increase its security by developing weapons to defeat terrorists would only serve to escalate its own insecurity and showcase US military paranoia. The failure of the US to ratify the CTBT also makes it less likely that other states will enter into the treaty. Pakistan and India, known nuclear states that are the most likely to start a nuclear confrontation have long been waiting to see what the US is going to do on CTBT before they take a stance. The effect of the US ratifying the CTBT would be the equivalent of saying Gentlemen, start your engines. 2 Every government in the world that is considering the treaty would race to get the treaty to enter into force. If those countries were to continue on their current course of nuclear development it is likely that the Bush administration would have to uphold its doctrine that it is using against Iraq in order to prevent the spread of Weapons of Mass Destruction to terrorist organizations. Ratification of the CTBT would not only halt US weapons development at its current state but it would also help pave the way for eventual disarmament. The ratification of the CTBT would also help undermine the current security dilemma the United States is locked in to. NMD NMD first appeared under President Reagan in the early 1980s. It was popularly known as Star Wars because it was intended to be a space-based system for the reconnaissance and prompt in-flight destruction of long-range missiles fired at the US3. However, due to its complexity and cost, the Star Wars system was never built. However, anti-missile systems continue to be explored, as for example the Exo-Atmospheric Kill Vehicle developed under President Clinton. 4 NMD represents an attempt to ensure that the US is forever safe from any kind of attack, especially from irrational rogue states armed with long-range missiles. It shows clearly that an interdependent world and globalisation bring with them a sense of insecurity. This sense of insecurity could be said to verge on paranoia, considering the disparity of forces between rogue states and the US. Indeed, as there is brought here, every threat is magnified under the lens of Global Positioning System (GPS) satellites and must be hedged against. Echoing President Clinton, British Prime Minister Tony Blair argued that in an interdependent world, extensive multilateralism was the only choice that could lead to true security from multiple, global threats. 5 However, President Bush seems to have chosen the opposite path by seeking to protect the US unilaterally, resulting in the logic of the Cold War arms race. NMD in particular, as it is a space-based defense system, seems particularly vulnerable to the logic of the arms race. Indeed, today only one in eight active orbiting satellites belong to the US military. 6 This proportion is set to decrease, as launching satellites into space continues to become more and more affordable to companies and smaller countries. Therefore, in the unilateralist logic, space-based weapons will also become increasingly available to possible enemies, presenting a new threat to US security that must be overcome by ever more expensive technological fixes. Furthermore, since i la carte multilateralism undermines the ABM Treaty, the arms race perspective becomes even more likely, as it contains the most explicit protections of satellites on the books. 7 The ABM Treaty effectively blocked the development of anti-missile defense systems,8 thus ensuring that any country launching a missile attack would be unable to defend itself from a retaliatory strike. Were this treaty to disappear, aggressive acts towards satellites, most probably by present or future rogue states, would only become more likely a self-fulfilling prophecy. This logic serves only to reiterate the fact that The basis of security is that it never works for just one. You have to have security for everyone or it fails. 9. That entering the arms race logic is the result of paranoia rather than realism is shown by the fact that the widening access to satellites to both businesses and countries could equally be seen as reinforcing the USs dominant position. Indeed, because of the USs undoubted technological advantage, it has developed many of the technologies which have become commonplace. For example, the Australian army relies on the American GPS system,10 and it is further woven into the fabric of daily life by being used by navigators in the worlds airlines and ships and even in ordinary peoples boats and cars. 11 Thus it is possible to say that the GPS system is universal and is no longer being tied to any particular territory. A more liberal approach than that taken by the Bush administration would suggest that overall, this diminishes the likelihood of an attack upon the satellites. Indeed By sharing GPS, no one feels so threatened to compete with it, and because of its widespread use any country that damaged it would provoke a global fury. 12 US insecurity is further demonstrated by frequent inversions of its actual military posture. Hence, the US is often represented as a weak military nation, despite its crushing military superiority. For example, Condoleeza Rice, President Bushs national security advisor, claimed during President Clintons tenure that US soldiers had been turned into social workers, and that the armed forces as a whole were as weak as in 1940. 13 The current Defense Secretary Donald Rumsfeld spoke of the increasing vulnerability of the US, and evoked images of a space-based Pearl Harbor early on in President Bushs tenure. 14 This constant fear of vulnerability is mirrored in academic circles. Kagan states that the defense budget needs to be increased rapidly, by as much as $50-100 billion per year. 15 As a budgetary recommendation, this figure seems fanciful, considering the combination of a slowing US economy, the $1. 35 trillion tax cut promoted by President Bush and the difficulty of pushing a far more modest budget increase through Congress this past budgetary session. However unrealistic, it does serve to reflect the condition of institutionalised paranoia. Insecurity is clearly shown when the US, by far the worlds leading military power in terms of budget, technology, logistics and training, is portrayed as being highly vulnerable to people such as Osama Bin Laden,16 the alleged terrorist. Rather, the US is creating the conditions of its own insecurity. Indeed, the combination of i la carte multilateralism, dreams of Full Spectrum Dominance and the idiosyncratic branding of certain states as rogues can only serve to antagonize friends and foes alike. Rather than defusing possible threats at the source, President Bushs policies seem more likely to provoke attack. Of course, any attack would be taken as a justification of these policies, feeding into a vicious circle of insecurity resolved through the deification of technology and the abandonment of the human contact represented by treaty negotiation. In Der Derians words, President Bush symbolizes the leader who has given up on peace on earth and now [seeks] peace of mind through the worship of new techno-deities. 17 Rumsfelds drive to reform the military on the basis of NMD and other space-based technologies implies deep and risky reductions in conventional forces, such as cuts in the number of Army divisions, Navy aircraft carriers and Air Force fighter wings. 18 This further reinforces the fact that techno-strategy is supplanting humanity in security considerations. The search for unilateral absolute security, especially through technology and unilateralism, is a form of the necessarily doomed search for a single power or sovereign truth that can dispel or control the insecurities, indeterminacies, and ambiguities that make up international relations. 19 The negative consequences of smart warfare are one instance of the risks of President Bushs logic. It is clear that if the United States continues to pursue its misguided foreign policy the world will soon witness a new wave of arms races and decreased securitization. Only by pursuing confidence building, regime oriented measures can the United States help avert the next Cold War. Ratification of the CTBT and ending the pursuit of a National Missile Defense seem to be the first steps in the process toward paving the way into the 21st century. The United States can either sit back a not take on its role as a champion of the free world or it can take a proactive stance in stomping out the possibility of a renewed arms race and break out of its Cold War security dilemma. 1 Alexander, B. and Millar, A. (www. fourthfreedom. org/php/print. php? hinc=DefenseNewstnw. hinc) July 11, 2001 2 Kuchta, A. Dickinson Journal of International Law A Closer Look: The US Senates Failure to Ratify the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty, 19 Dick. J. Intl L. 333. 3 http://www. nuclearfiles. org/chron/80/1980s. html 4 http://www. msnbc. com/news/845497. asp? 0cv=TB10 5 Blair, T. , Doctrine of the International Community, speech delivered in Chicago, 23 April, 1999, http://www. number-10.gov. uk.

The Effects of Mono Lakes Hydrology on its Ecosystem :: Environment Biology Essays

The Effects of Mono Lake's Hydrology on its Ecosystem Situated at the foothills of the Eastern Sierra Nevada, Mono Lake has an unusual and unique hydrology that is highly influential in shaping the water chemistry (specifically the water's salinity and alkalinity) and biological life that survives there. Mono Lake is a hypersaline, highly alkaline, hydrographically closed basin in which the only natural means of water export is through evaporation. The basin itself was carved out by faulting of tectonic plates that occurred atleast 500,000 years ago. Mono Basin contains up to 7,000 ft. of glacial, fluvial, lacustrine and volcanic deposits in a large structural depression formed in part by down-dropping along the Sierra Nevada fault (Pakiser 1976). In addition to the water evaporated, the Los Angeles Department of Water and Power (DWP) began diverting Mono Lake's water and approximately 58% of its natural inflow (annually) to supply 13% of the city of Los Angeles's water supply in 1940 (Stine 1991). Because lake volume fluctuates in response to varying inflow and evaporation, the late-water concentration and composition can experience substantial change through time (Rogers 1992). A high concentration of soluble compounds and salts formed inherently as evaporation occurred, and minerals and compounds were left behind. Runoff, erosional sediments and precipitation (rain and snowfall are limited in the Eastern side due to the rainshadow effect) from the Sierra Nevada accumulate in the Mono Basin. Also ephemeral perennial streams from the Sierra Nevada flow into the Mono Basin. Because of this, a great deal of the groundwater and the groundwater hydrological system is dominated by stream losses from the mountains. Fault lines can also be highly influential to the production of groundwater. According to USGS's Ronald Oremland, The lake is usually monomictic, and undergoes one complete winter mixing event induced by the sinking of cold surface waters. However, inputs of large amounts of freshwater into the lake in the early 1980s and again in the late 1990s resulted in episodes of meromixis (Oremland 2000). Jellison predicts that the meromixis phase that is currently occurring will last several decades. Meromixis generally produces buildup of ammonia, sulfide and methane. In many cases diversions of freshwater inputs for irrigation or other human uses have resulted in diminished size and increased salinity (Jellison 1992). Diverting Mono Lake's streams has not only stirred political and environmental controversy over rights but has also led to the waters of Mono Lake being halved in lake volume, reduced by 45 ft.

Baz luhrmann’s interpretation of Romeo and Juliet Essay

Shakespeare uses a prologue at the start of his play for a number of reasons. Firstly, it acts as an introduction to the story. We learn about the rivalry between the two families, †Ancient Grudge† it also makes clear that it is a tragic story of two †star – cross’d lovers † who are destined to die because of their families hatred. The prologue is like the opening to a film because both need to grab your attention. The setting of Baz Luhrmann’s ‘Romeo and Juliet’ is in the west coast of America, in a setting, which he calls Verona Beach. However this is not true as the beach’s real name is Venice Beach but the reason why he uses this is because it reminds everyone where William Shakespeare actually set the play, he set the play in Verona so by changing the name he has made quite a remarkable thing by making sure everyone knows where it is set. The other reasons why he filmed ‘Romeo and Juliet’ in the west coast of America is because Los Angeles is a big city just like Verona and because there is also a lot of violence and gangs in Los Angeles just like Verona. The types of film Baz Luhrmann used in the prologue are TV news style footage showing you how much of their fighting is causing their city to be more violent, as well as this they are trying to say that what is happening between the Montague’s and the Capulet’s has an effect on the rest of the city. By doing the prologue, as TV news footage is a clever thing to do, as it is an original idea and by doing it in this way it will keep the audience hooked to the rest of the movie. Another reason why Baz Luhrmann used TV news footage is because it shows the violence in Verona. When the camera shakes, the jumpy effect makes you think the violence is real and also is very dangerous. This makes the audience hooked to the movie. The director uses a voice over to read out the prologue. The actor reading the prologue played the priest. The priest Friar Lawrence is appropriate because he knows both sides of the story. His voice is deep, sorrowful and sad. His tone of voice is meant to be serious so everyone will be influenced by what he says about the circumstances surrounding the storyline and take him seriously. Also by making the priest read the prologue it shows that he is aware of the situation surrounding both the families and the effect it has on the rest of the city and the seriousness of the situation. Not only did they use a voice over, they used captions with bold letters and people shouting to grab our attention. This keeps us hooked and willing to watch the rest of the movie. He says this in a deep American accent, although as we know, he is not really an American but an Englishman. Luhrmann uses some interesting shots in the opening sequences, such as close-ups, because it is important as it shows their facial expression and the body language used, making it more realistic and interesting, thereby attaining the interest of the audience. He also uses long shots (establishing shots) to show the whole city from the helicopter as it gives an overall view of what is happening in the city as a whole, focusing your attention to different parts of the city. He uses medium shots because it is ideal for introducing characters as it concentrates on how they appear on first sight and the impact they have on the audience. He uses high angle shots so that you can see what is going on like a birds eye view, showing a character in proportion and comparison to the rest of the city. He also zooms into the statue of Christ and the two buildings to show how important they are and to make them stand out from the rest of the city, by attracting the attention of the audience and thereby making them focus on the zoomed objects, giving them the utmost importance. He also uses fades and cuts. Fades are when the scene goes black. Fades are to close the scene and go on to another part of the story. Cuts are used to show what may be happening in another part of the story, maybe at the same time of the scene that has just been showed. He also uses freeze frames. One example of a freeze frame was in the scene of the Montague boys, when the characters are still for some time. He also uses wipes to speed up the scenes from the film. The reasons he used these effects could be because they make the story faster and more intense, and tries to show how different the atmosphere in certain scenes are. Baz Luhrmann used operatic and church music as well as dramatic and religious music, because they all tie in with ideas of fate etc. This music is ancient like the families and the story. When the Montague boys come they have different music. They use rap style music to show that they are young and modern and part of a gang. Luhrmann uses different sound effects like gunshots, fires, helicopters, brakes and loud music when they show the Montague boys. The reason why he uses these is because this is meant to be a tense city with a lot of violence and by showing it like this he is to make the audience feel like it still happens in modern times. The director uses images and symbols to focus on emphasizing peace and religion. He uses a statue of Christ because it shows everyone what it represents. The statue represents peace and refers to the Catholic religion. By doing this, they are trying to make the viewer think that Verona needs peace. He also emphasizes on the two towers, because they show the rivalry between Montague and Capulet and the wealth of the families. It also represents both families having a say about what happens in the city. He also uses fire as a symbol, as fire represents danger, death and hell. Everything that is happening in Verona is due to the families. He also uses passion as a symbol, because as we know, passion is the theme of the story throughout as both ‘Romeo and Juliet’ are madly in love. In conclusion, it is clear to see that the director is trying to open the play up to a more modern audience such as teenagers. He has made it appealing to the young target audience by hiring young attractive actors to play Romeo and Juliet. He also uses flashy equipment such as guns and cars to make the story appear more modern and to try to attract the young audience. He also uses different music to show the personality, e. g. when the Montague boys come, the music changes to rap music, as they are young and modern. Lurhmann also uses different styles like exciting visual tricks to attract their attention.

Learning Experience Essay

For the past years in college, I have faced situations that needed intelligent decisions. Though many times I have considered the possible consequences, nothing could prepare me when I faced them. In the end I always realize that I have made the wrong decisions, and I could not turn back time to change them. However, these experiences taught me lots of things that helped me to become a better decision maker. I admit that there is a part of me that always tries to avoid making the boldest decisions, despite the fact that they are the safest (Arsham, 1994), as it appears risky to me. Moreover, there were times when these decisions are nerve-racking and difficult and I was often left scared to deal with the outcome. At one point in my life, I experienced losing friends who have been with me for years. I did not notice that slowly they were pushing me down despite our friendship. And even if this one person who I just met for a few months warned me about how my ‘friends’ back-stabbed me, I did not believe her because I knew my friends better, or so I thought. It was hard for me to accept that they, out of envy, would tell bad things about me. I have confided in them, my life was an open book to them, and I trusted them with my whole life. Then one day, all of their hate words reached me. I was in shock, because my friends treated me well whenever I am around. I was in a state of denial for a few weeks. During those weeks, I was like another person. I was apathetic and unemotional (Messina, J, and C. Messina, 2007). It was like those years of friendship that we have built for almost three years were broken in just a few days. Later on I was angry at them. And then I realized that my anger was a reaction for being hurt and insulted (Richmond, 2008). The hardest part was turning my back on them because I knew I do not deserve to be friends with persons who would deliberately say bad things about me. It was really a difficult decision, because somehow I have treasured those moments when we were genuinely happy with each other’s company. What made it more difficult was seeing them in places where we have hang out before. Seeing them always reminded me how I was not careful in choosing people who would be a part of me and my life. Up to this day I am still hurt when I think about them. But the good thing is that I became better at choosing friends. I do not judge somebody easily, but since then I have found friends who are better than best. And that is enough for me. References Arsham, H. (1994). Leadership decision making. Retrieved December 15, 2008, from http://home. ubalt. edu/ntsbarsh/opre640/partXIII. htm Messina, J. J. , and C. Messina. (2007). Tools for handling loss. Coping. org. Retrieved December 15, 2008, from http://www. coping. org/grief/denial. htm

Words with the -ster Suffix

Words with the -ster Suffix Words with the -ster Suffix Words with the -ster Suffix By Mark Nichol The suffix -ster originated in Old English as -ister, serving to turn a verb into an agent noun, one describing a person who (or thing that) performs an action. Beginning its linguistic life as the feminine equivalent of -er, it survives in the specifically feminine noun spinster- originally, â€Å"a woman who spins,† but now a label for an older unmarried woman. In Middle English, the suffix lost its gender-specific function. Surnames that were originally agent nouns denoting occupations include Baxter (â€Å"baker†), Brewster (â€Å"beer maker†), and Webster (â€Å"weaver†); linguists are divided about whether these terms were exclusively applied to female practitioners of various crafts or referred to men as well. Another occupational term, teamster, originally referred to a wagon driver and later to a truck driver; this profession gave its name to the trade union called the International Brotherhood of Teamsters, which includes workers in many other trades. Other words that we hardly notice include the suffix include gangster and mobster, both referring to members of criminal organizations. (Bankster is a recent play on the former word, alluding to allegedly felonious acts of bank executives.) A slang term for one who plays basketball is hoopster, and young and old people are referred to as youngsters and oldsters respectively. Less common words include chorister (a member of a chorus), pollster (someone involved in developing or carrying out polls), and tipster (an informant). Most -ster constructions are neutral in tone, but two derisive appellations are hipster, referring to a person who self-consciously follows an alternative lifestyle, and scenester, someone who is ostentatiously immersed in a trendy social scene. Various words for people who practice various forms of humor include gagster, jokester, prankster, punster, and quipster. Trickster refers to a dishonest person or to one who, like a stage magician, uses tricks to benignly deceive others; in folkloric studies, the term denotes a type of god or other supernatural figure who is cunning or who practices deception. Two terms that refer to things rather than people are dragster (a car used in drag races) and roadster (a convertible sports car). Although lobster is likely an agent noun- from loppe, an Old English word meaning â€Å"spider,† and -ster, its name is folk etymology based on the Latin word locustra (also the origin of locust)- some words that end in -ster are not related. Monster, for example, is based on the Latin term monstrum, meaning â€Å"monster† or â€Å"omen.† Want to improve your English in five minutes a day? Get a subscription and start receiving our writing tips and exercises daily! Keep learning! Browse the Vocabulary category, check our popular posts, or choose a related post below:5 Uses of InfinitivesA While vs AwhileWords That Begin with Q

UK Investment in Properties

UK Investment in Properties Introduction The term investment has been the topic of discussion among most ‘enlightened’ people throughout the globe. As a result the current globalization rate has made people to venture into various business and finance options in a bid to earn more income. People as well as business enterprises have opted to embark on investment as the better choice of acquiring quick and reliable income.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on UK Investment in Properties specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Investments can be of various types such as capital markets which include shares and bonds, banking and property investment just to mention but a few. All the aforementioned investment options have their own types of risks with the common ones being valuation risks, force of sale risks and the business risks (Ball and Grilli, 1997, p.280). Despite the risks accompanying the investment options, people and corporations still strive to venture into investment business because in most cases if well managed investing is very profitable. A common way of investing is through the investment property which entails purchasing a commercial property or real estate with the aim of gaining returns within a given period of time or even eternity. In most cases the owner of the investment property rarely makes use or occupies the property. In instances where the owner occupies it, they will use only a portion of it and let out the rest. After certain duration of time, the property is completely paid off and the purchaser continues to enjoy the income generated from the property (Ball and Grilli, 1997, p.280). Investment property is a type of investment option that is practiced throughout the globe. This paper is a discussion of how the UK-investment properties have been characterized by booms and crashes and if they go against the efficient market hypothesis as well as advising an investor about investing in propertie s. The Cycles of booms and crashes in the UK investment properties The United Kingdom has been categorized as one of the most developed nations of the world. For a long time UK has been among the stable locations for the investment property market (McGough and Tsolacos, 1995. p.47). However, in the recent past the investment property sector has been characterised by periods of high returns and those of negative returns hence making the sector unstable and unpredictable. This on the other hand has lowered the investor confidence in UK making most investors opt for other locations to invest. The property investment market of UK has been known to boom then suddenly crashes before it booms again. Due to the reason that the property investment market is closely related to the country’s economy, whenever it crashes, the government does all it can to get things back to normal thus it booms. The issue of booms and crashes in the UK property investment market was of concern even in ea rlier years before the globalisation era (McGough and Tsolacos, 1995. p.47). For example, UK is characterised by two major crashes of 1974 and 1990 which had significant impacts on the economic system of the nation.Advertising Looking for essay on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More While the 1974 crash caused severe crisis in the banking sector of UK, the 1990 crash led to a reduction in the value of corporate assets. This in turn affected the economy of the nation making it drop down from being among the best world’s economies. Other than the two crashes mentioned, UK has been suffering incidents of crashes due to various reasons which some of them could be the following; Property development restrictions- There could be reasons that could be hindering investors in investing in properties. These could be laid down by the state or municipality officials hence barring potential investors from choosing to invest in real estate property (McGough and Tsolacos, 1995. p.47). Taxation- The tax imposed in materials and services used in the development of properties could be so high making the cost of investing in real estate high. This will again cause a reduction in the number of people investing in properties which in turn negatively affect the market of investment properties thus a crash. Other causes of crashes in the investment property sector could include economic and political instability among other reasons. However, the duration of the crash or rather the amplitude depends on the period of government intervention or self-recovery from the crash (McGough and Tsolacos, 1995. p.48). The famous booms of investment property in the UK occurred in 1989 and 1992. The 1989 boom made the economy of UK to double up thus raising it to the top. Booms occur as a result of favourable conditions in the investment market which would make investors comfortable to develop real estate properties (McGough and Tsolacos, 1995. p.47). These conditions could include fair taxation, favourable political and economical conditions, and high demand in real estate property among other factors. When a boom occurs the investment market generates high income that in turn makes the economy of the nation go up due to the high value of the pound in the global market. Efficient market hypothesis The concept of efficient market hypothesis is very important in the investment sector and especially the property investment market. It entails provision of all the information about the market value being reflected in the prices (Malkiel, 2003, p.1). Efficient market hypothesis is related to the notion of ‘random walk’ which states that a change in price in investments represents a slight move from the previous price of the investment or market share. The coordination of the two implies that a change in price is independent of the previous one and will be immediately reflecte d in the market, thus the disclosure of the information (Malkiel, 2003, p.1). The efficient market hypothesis was used much in the vast ages where most economists and statisticians had the belief that it was difficult predicting the market prices. However, the situation has in the recent past changed given the research of some economists. The economists have argued the fact that it is possible to predict the future market prices. Efficient market hypothesis go further to claim that an investor is only in a position to earn high profits after undertaking high risks. Thus, the term efficiency is controversial with the recent economists arguing that efficiency means having less risks in the market (Scott and Judge, 2000, p.1).Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on UK Investment in Properties specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More In the context of the booms and crashes of the UK investment property market, it does not fully repres ent the efficient market hypothesis. This is because a market cannot be fully efficient so that one is able to perfectly predict the future outcome. As mentioned above, efficient market hypothesis indicates that changes in prices of the market will be immediately reflected in the property prices (Malkiel, 2003, p.1). This is not the case in the property investment of UK because; this unlike other investment types is long-term with slow reflection of the market prices. In addition to this, efficient market hypothesis argues that it is not able to predict future market prices, while in property investment market given the cycles of booms and crashes it is able to predict the market prices of the investment properties. This is because, from the trend, property investors would expect that a crash would lead to a boom in the next cycles hence able to predict the price thus the choice of cause of action. Advice to investors on investing in properties Property investment is among the top l ucrative businesses in the United Kingdom and the whole world at large. Because of this, investors have to acquire the best advice from financial advisors lest they make the wrong choice. Since all the investors of the property investment venture in the market with the aim of gaining profit, it is important that they achieve their goal (Hebner, 2007, p. 243). Among the advice given is to ensure that the investor has adequate information concerning the property, the market situation, prices among other factors. This would enable one to make a sound decision based on the information they have got. Choosing the UK market as an investment location is a good idea because of the following reasons; There are available sources of funds from money lending institutions for willing investors who may not have all the required funds. The economy of the United Kingdom has been favourable for property investment despite the little havocs that have affected it (Hebner, 2007, p. 243). The United Ki ngdom has an ideal market of property which investors would be looking forward to investing in. In addition to the stable economy of UK, the nation has a stable and favourable political environment. These are just some of the few reasons as to why one would be advised to invest in the UK property investment market. Nevertheless, given the concerns of booms and crashes, it is important that an investor predicts the market price of property investment before making the decision of investing (Hebner, 2007, p. 265). This is to avoid losses that could occur as a result of negative returns.Advertising Looking for essay on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Conclusion From the above discussion it can be concluded that the fact that the UK investment properties is characterised by periods of high and negative returns is an indication of riskiness in this business. This evidence goes against the efficient market hypothesis because of the reason that the economists have argued that prices of the real investments are partly predictable (Shiller, 1999, p.103). This therefore is an indication that given the right advice, an investor in real estate would be in a position to avoid the risks involved in the venture. Despite the fact that the UK property investment has been characterized by the booms and crashes, it is still a good location for investing because of the opportunity and benefits that come in hand with investing in the UK market (Shiller, 1999, p.103). Last but not least is the fact that, the knowledge of the cycle that is being aware of when a boom or crash is expected would equip one with the instruments of avoiding risks and mak ing profits. Reference List Ball, M. and Grilli, M. (1997) UK commercial property investment: time-series characteristics and modelling strategies, Journal of Property Research, 14, 279Â ± 96. Hebner, T. (2007). Index Funds: The 12-Step Program for Active Investors, IFA Publishing. McGough, T. and Tsolacos, S. (1995) Property cycles in the UK: an empirical investigation of the stylized facts, Journal of Property Finance, 6(4), 45Â ± 62. Malkiel, B. (2003). The Efficient Market Hypothesis and Its Critics. Web. Scott, P. Judge, G. (2000). Cycles and steps in British commercial property values. Web. Shiller, R. (1999). Human Behaviour and the Efficiency of the Financial System Handbook of Macroeconomics.

The Invention and Evolution of the Telephone

The Invention and Evolution of the Telephone In the 1870s, Elisha Gray and Alexander Graham Bell independently designed devices that could transmit speech electrically. Both men rushed their respective designs for these prototype telephones to the patent office within hours of each other. Bell patented his telephone first and later emerged the victor in a legal dispute with Gray. Today, Bells name is synonymous with the telephone, while Gray is largely forgotten. But the story of who invented the telephone goes beyond these two men.   Bells Biography Alexander Graham Bell was born on March 3, 1847, in Edinburgh, Scotland. He was immersed in the study of sound from the beginning. His father, uncle, and grandfather were authorities on elocution and speech therapy for the deaf. It was understood that Bell would follow in the family footsteps after finishing college. However, after Bells two other brothers died of tuberculosis, Bell and his parents decided to immigrate to Canada in 1870. After a brief period living in Ontario, the Bells moved to Boston, where they established speech-therapy practices specializing in teaching deaf children to speak. One of Alexander Graham Bells pupils was a young Helen Keller, who when they met was not only blind and deaf but also unable to speak. Although working with the deaf would remain Bells principal source of income, he continued to pursue his own studies of sound on the side. Bells unceasing scientific curiosity led to the  invention of the photophone, to significant commercial improvements in Thomas Edisons phonograph, and to development of his own flying machine just six years after the Wright Brothers launched their plane at Kitty Hawk. As President James Garfield lay dying of an assassins bullet in 1881, Bell hurriedly invented a metal detector in an unsuccessful attempt to locate the fatal slug. From Telegraph to Telephone The telegraph and telephone are both wire-based electrical systems, and Alexander Graham Bells success with the telephone came as a direct result of his attempts to improve the telegraph. When he began experimenting with electrical signals, the telegraph had been an established means of communication for some 30 years. Although a highly successful system, the telegraph was basically limited to receiving and sending one message at a time. Bells extensive knowledge of the nature of sound and his understanding of music enabled him to conjecture the possibility of transmitting multiple messages over the same wire at the same time. Although the idea of a multiple telegraph had been in existence for some time, no one had been able to fabricate one- until Bell. His harmonic telegraph was based on the principle that several notes could be sent simultaneously along the same wire if the notes or signals differed in pitch. Talk With Electricity By October 1874, Bells research had progressed to the extent that he could inform his future father-in-law, Boston attorney Gardiner Greene Hubbard, about the possibility of a multiple telegraph. Hubbard, who resented the absolute control then exerted by the Western Union Telegraph Company, instantly saw the potential for breaking such a monopoly and gave Bell the financial backing he needed. Bell proceeded with his work on the multiple telegraph, but he did not tell Hubbard that he and Thomas Watson, a young electrician whose services he had enlisted, were also developing a device that would transmit speech electrically. While Watson worked on the harmonic telegraph at the insistent urging of Hubbard and other backers, Bell secretly met in March 1875 with Joseph Henry, the respected director of the Smithsonian Institution, who listened to Bells ideas for a telephone and offered encouraging words. Spurred on by Henrys positive opinion, Bell and Watson continued their work. By June 1875 the goal of creating a device that would transmit speech electrically was about to be realized. They had proven that different tones would vary the strength of an electric current in a wire. To achieve success, they, therefore, needed only to build a working transmitter with a membrane capable of varying electronic currents and a receiver that would reproduce these variations in audible frequencies. Mr. Watson, Come Here On June 2, 1875, while experimenting with his harmonic telegraph, the men discovered that sound could be transmitted over a wire. It was a completely accidental discovery. Watson was trying to loosen a reed that had been wound around a transmitter when he plucked it by accident. The vibration produced by that gesture traveled along the wire into a second device in the other room where Bell was working. The twang Bell heard was all the inspiration that he and Watson needed to accelerate their work. They continued to work into the next year. Bell recounted the critical moment in his journal:   I then shouted into M [the mouthpiece] the following sentence: Mr. Watson, come here- I want to see you. To my delight, he came and declared that he had heard and understood what I said. The first telephone call had just been made. The Telephone Network Is Born Bell patented his device on March 7, 1876, and the device quickly began to spread. By 1877, construction of the first regular telephone line from Boston to Somerville, Massachusetts, had been completed. By the end of 1880, there were 47,900 telephones in the United States. The following year, telephone service between Boston and Providence,  Rhode Island, had been established. Service between New York and Chicago started in 1892, and between New York and Boston in 1894. Transcontinental service began in 1915.   Bell founded his Bell Telephone Company in 1877. As the industry rapidly expanded, Bell quickly bought out competitors. After a series of mergers, the American Telephone and Telegraph Co., the forerunner of todays ATT, was incorporated in 1880. Because Bell controlled the intellectual property and patents behind the telephone system, ATT had a de facto monopoly over the young industry. It would maintain its control over the U.S. telephone market until 1984, when a settlement with the U.S. Department of Justice forced ATT to end its control over state markets. Exchanges and Rotary Dialing The first regular telephone exchange was established in New Haven, Connecticut, in 1878. Early telephones were leased in pairs to subscribers. The subscriber was required to put up his own line to connect with another. In 1889, Kansas City undertaker Almon B. Strowger invented a switch that could connect one line to any of 100 lines by using relays and sliders. The Strowger switch, as it came to be known, was still in use in some telephone offices well over 100 years later. Strowger  was issued  a patent on March 11, 1891, for the first automatic telephone exchange. The first exchange using the Strowger switch was opened in La Porte, Indiana, in 1892. Initially, subscribers had a button on their telephone to produce the required number of pulses by tapping. An associate of Strowgers invented the rotary dial in 1896, replacing the button. In 1943, Philadelphia was the last major area to give up dual service (rotary and button). Pay Phones In 1889, the coin-operated telephone was patented by William Gray of Hartford, Connecticut. Grays pay phone was first installed and used in the Hartford Bank. Unlike pay phones today, users of Grays phone paid after they had finished their call. Pay phones proliferated along with the Bell System. By the time the first phone booths were installed in 1905, there were about 100,000 pay phones in the U.S. By the turn of the 21st century, there were more than 2 million pay phones in the nation. But with the advent of mobile technology, the public demand for pay phones rapidly declined, and today there are fewer than 300,000 still operating in the United States. Touch-Tone Phones Researchers at Western Electric, ATTs manufacturing subsidiary, had experimented with using tones rather than pulses to trigger telephone connections since the early 1940s. But it wasnt until 1963 that dual-tone multifrequency  signaling, which uses the same frequency as speech, was commercially viable. ATT introduced it as Touch-Tone  dialing, and it quickly became the next standard in telephone technology. By 1990, push-button phones were more common than rotary-dial models in American homes. Cordless Phones In the 1970s, the very first cordless phones were introduced. In 1986, the Federal Communications Commission granted the frequency range of 47 to 49 MHz for cordless phones. Granting a greater frequency range allowed cordless phones to have less interference and need less power to run. In 1990, the FCC granted the frequency range of 900 MHz for cordless phones. In 1994, digital cordless phones, and in 1995, digital spread spectrum (DSS), were both respectively introduced. Both developments were intended to increase the security of cordless phones and decrease unwanted eavesdropping by enabling the phone conversation to be digitally spread out. In 1998, the FCC granted the frequency range of 2.4 GHz for cordless phones; today, the upward range is 5.8 GHz. Cell Phones The earliest mobile phones were radio-controlled units designed for vehicles. They were expensive and cumbersome, and had extremely limited range. First launched by ATT in 1946, the network would slowly expand and become more sophisticated, but it never was widely adopted. By 1980, it had been replaced by the first cellular networks. Research on what would become the cellular phone network used today began in 1947 at Bell Labs, the research wing of ATT. Although the radio frequencies needed were not yet commercially available, the concept of connecting phones wirelessly through a network of cells or transmitters was a viable one. Motorola introduced the first hand-held cellular phone in 1973. Telephone Books The first telephone book was published in New Haven, Connecticut, by the New Haven District Telephone Company in February 1878. It was one page long and held 50 names; no numbers were listed, as the operator would connect you. The page was divided into four sections: residential, professional, essential services, and miscellaneous. In 1886, Reuben H. Donnelly produced the first Yellow Pages–branded directory featuring business names and phone numbers, categorized by the types of products and services provided. By the 1980s, telephone books, whether issued by the Bell System or private publishers, were in nearly every home and business. But with the advent of the Internet and of cell phones, telephone books have been rendered largely obsolete.   9-1-1 Prior to 1968, there was no dedicated phone number for reaching first responders in the event of an emergency. That changed after a congressional investigation led to calls for the establishment of such a system nationwide. The Federal Communications Commission and ATT soon announced they would launch their emergency network in Indiana, using the digits 9-1-1 (chosen for its simplicity and for being easy to remember). But a small independent phone company in rural Alabama decided to beat ATT at its own game. On Feb. 16, 1968, the first 9-1-1- call was placed in Hayleyville, Alabama, at the office of the Alabama Telephone Company. The 9-1-1 network would be introduced to other cities and town slowly; it wasnt until 1987 that at least half of all American homes had access to a 9-1-1 emergency network. Caller ID Several researchers created devices for identifying the number of incoming calls, including scientists in Brazil, Japan, and Greece, starting in the late 1960s. In the U.S., ATT first made its trademarked TouchStar caller ID service available in Orlando, Florida, in 1984. Over the next several years, the regional Bell Systems would introduce caller ID services in the Northeast and Southeast. Although the service was initially sold as a pricey added service, caller ID today is a standard function found on every cell phone and available on most any landlines. Additional Resources Want to know more about the history of the telephone? There are a number of great resources in print and online. Here are a few to  get you started: ​The History of the Telephone: This book, now in the public domain, was written in 1910. Its an enthusiastic narrative of the telephones history up to that point in time. Understanding the Telephone: A great technical primer on how analog  telephones (common in homes until the 1980s and 1990s) work.   Hello? A History of the Telephone: Slate magazine has a great slide show of phones from the past to the present. The History of Pagers: Before there were cell phones, there were pagers. The first one was patented in 1949. The History of Answering Machines: Voicemails precursor has been around almost as long as the telephone itself.

Film Analysis Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Film Analysis - Essay Example The sociological perspective I will introduce is the idea of conformity. Conformity is going along with peers who have no special right to direct behavior. It could be synonymous with obedience because in this case, her higher authority is Hollywood. If she wants to fit into an awards show dress, she must stick to the cleansing diet proposed for maximum fit. Conformity is very important in many social circles. Conformity determines who is â€Å"in† and who is â€Å"out† when it comes to popularity. According to Milgram, we as humans are accustomed to submitting to authority. Sometimes that authority is a person, or object and other times it a higher power. Conformity oddly enough gives people a sense of belonging in this world and the power of conforming to someone else has to do with nature/nurture. Social control becomes a factor in this scene because it is informal. The owner of the clothing store has no idea how much weight and power his words possess when giving the actress the secret ingredient to becoming a size zero. The final scene I’d like to bring to mind is actually the scene where Dawn splurges and goes on a binge before even starting her West Hollywood diet. She is very much aware of what she will have to endure as a person taking on the new persona of a size zero or as she likes to call it â€Å"a UK size four.† The Socialistic point of view that can be attributed to this scene is deviancy. It is not just deviancy, but it is complete rebellion. Deviancy is the behavior or attributes of an individual or group that some may find offensive, wrong, strange or immoral. Let’s take the word strange and apply it to this situation. When a person is deviant, they are going the other way or avoiding the outcome. Dawn purposely eats tons of food before starting her diet as an act of deviance because she knows she will need to endure a much

Federal Governmant (Specific topic is listed below) Term Paper

Federal Governmant (Specific topic is listed below) - Term Paper Example The crime authority personnel or the lawyer can also call you whenever needed in the case in order to have relevant information about the incident even if you are not present in the location where the incident happened but have relevant information about it. Among the duties, one of the duties relates to taxes also. It is the constitutional duty of all American citizens to pay taxes. Taxes are necessary to ensure that various services can be provided, such as national defense, infrastructure, public works, government operations and more. Another duty is, when the male citizens of America become 18 years of old, then they must register themselves with the Selective Service System. This is the way the government draft the number of citizens who are eligible for service.1 A citizen of United States is being defined as someone who is born over there, within the jurisdiction of the United States of America or its territories. The body of the original Constitution comprises of three branches, that is, the Legislative, Judicial and the Executive. The rights of all citizens are outlined in the first 10 amendments to the Constitution, the Bill of Rights.2 Four years after the ratification of the Constitution, the Bill of Rights was added, when the farmers realized their omission for the citizens. All the 10 amendments were added at the same time while the remaining 17 amendments outlined various other changes. The First Amendment protects the freedom of all citizens to practice the religion of their choice or not practice any religion, freedom of speech, freedom to address the government and freedom of the press. The Second Amendment protects the right of all citizens to own guns, although it is still unclear whether this amendment means individual citizens or state militias. The Third Amendment protects citizens from being forced to feed and to give shelter

The CentralFush Website Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

The CentralFush Website - Assignment Example Information categories on the website will be as follows:†¢Ã‚  Information about personsThe website will contain information of celebrities from around the world and the various activities that they are involved in, which are in tandem with the fashion trend being discussed. This information will be more graphical than written. The information will be in form of image and videos.†¢Ã‚  Statistical informationStatistical information on the site will cover the analysis of the numbers of young people who are following a particular trend in a given region.   The analysis will be in form of numbers and percentages as compared to the total figure.†¢Ã‚  Public informationPublic information will be general information that originated from the public. For instance, this category will cover the most stocked footwear in most shops in every region. The opinion that the shop-owners have for stocking the footwear will also be included on the website. This is public information. Fun ctions of the WebsiteThe primary function of the website is to deliver trending fashions content to the young people from all over the world. Secondary to this, is cultural integration through the appreciation of various fashions from other cultures.Other RequirementsThe major requirement that the site will need is tailoring it for mobile phone viewing. The reason for this is that many of the expected users will be browsing the site via their handsets. As such, it will be necessary to have the site optimized to run on tablets, iPads as well as mobile phones.

Measure and Light Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Measure and Light - Essay Example This can be enjoyed at the simplest level by anyone, even birds are mentioned, but there are also those who understand the science of music – how it works , how it constructs links , how it can be composed. He quotes St Augustine of Hippo from the fourth century C.E. in ‘De musica’1 as saying that this is the science of music, a mathematical science. Music is described as an expression of relationships, a mathematical relationship. Augustine’s claim was that number was needed to prevent chaos within the universe. Because these are mathematical concepts the same principles can be applied in the field of the visual arts. In the mediaeval period it was believed that contemplation of geometry would lead on to thoughts of the divine, pointing to what lies outside our normal fields of vision. Augustine realised that both music and architecture have this aesthetic value. Augustine was aware that architecture uses this science of number, but was aware that not ever y architect was necessarily aware of the rules, even though he could apply them. He considered though that there could be no building of beauty unless the rules were both applied and could be seen to have done so. The whole creative process has to be placed within a framework of mathematical rules, of harmony and proportion. The contemplation of such things were believed to lead to a revelation of God. Mention is made of wave after wave of iconoclasm which aimed to limit this aim of medieval art, but which was never able to fully suppress it. Instead as time passed new styles emerged , ever more fitted to produce the religious experience aimed for . The Wisdom of Solomon is quoted , saying of God ‘Thou hast ordered all things in measure in number and weight ,’ ( Wisdom 11 v 21),2 with the complete creation being seen a heavenly composition, but also an artistic or architectural one. As part of this the buildings were seen as being right in the will of God as they produc e feelings of both awe and reverence of the divine. This, according to Curtius, was the world view of the time. They take the place in western Christianity, of the icon among Orthodox Christians, where ideas about the ultimate take the form of visual beauty. Two important strands of thought are described – the unusual version of Platonism based in Chartres, and from Clairvaux a more spiritual aspect. There was an emphasis upon mathematics and the consequences of such thinking. The word architect is discussed with its two early meanings: that of the simple mason and also the cleric in charge of a building. Then later came the idea of the architect not as a craftsman but as a scientist, a ‘theoreticus’ of his art, who quite deliberately uses scientific principles to achieve what is required. The author points how we must not impose modern ideas of what an architect is upon these medieval builders. We know value great craftsmanship, but such workers were little valu ed in that period, as compared with the theoreticus. Note that link with the word ‘theory ‘. These men were clerics. They did not actually create physical things, climb ladders or use building tools. That was the task of skilled craftspeople. Boethius is mentioned, with his idea that mere carrying out rules to create a work of art if akin to slavery , whereas knowledge of the science from which a work is created is like being a

Organizational Research and Theory Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Organizational and Theory - Research Paper Example Organisations need a combination of some of these resources. If they do not need any other resource at all, human resources cannot be done without. In using various resources, they must be careful so that they use only resources that are of benefit to the organisation. They must also know when some resources are useful and when they are not. Of course, it must be noted that there may be situations in which one has to modify certain resources in ways that will suite one’s organisation. Above all, organisation must always remember that their goals, policies and programmes are important in the determination of how resources are structured. The success of whatever strategy an organisation adopts largely depends on the types of resources available, how profit is maximised and how losses and new resources are managed. As with many things in life, there are resources that are good for some organisation and there are those that are not so good for them. In determining what category re sources belongs to, both the leadership and the management have important roles to play. They must also be able to recognise the impacts have or are likely to have in the advancement of the set goals of the organisation. If perhaps the resources are not performing as expected, they must be able to work out ways in which these resources can be optimally useful. This is because the organisation’s success in the competitive market place strongly depends on the performance of resources. Nature of Organizations and Environment In any organisation, there must be members who of course are human beings. This is exactly what the above quote indicates. The nature of organisations has a lot to do with the nature of human beings in them. The human resources as well as the natural resources found in any organisation have to be modelled into the form that favours the organisation. Humans, as we have been created, are unique. In a similar way, an organisation is unique. This certainly means that it would be almost impossible to come across two organisations that are exactly the same in all respects. In the same light, the environment is often unique, however, it may it may not be as unique as the organisation itself. Whatever the case may be, it must be underscored that the approach adopted by different organisations are largely different, even if the circumstances and environment are quite similar. It must be understood that in any organisation, there are variety of groups ( just as there could be a variety of environments). The groups and the environments are of different kinds, while some are loose, others are unstructured and temporary. Yet they all have a purpose because that is the reason they were set up in the first place. One of the basic unchanging rules of organisational behaviour is that the structure (as well as the environment) determines how members of the organisation relate. Four Stages of Organizational

Measure and Light Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Measure and Light - Essay Example This can be enjoyed at the simplest level by anyone, even birds are mentioned, but there are also those who understand the science of music – how it works , how it constructs links , how it can be composed. He quotes St Augustine of Hippo from the fourth century C.E. in ‘De musica’1 as saying that this is the science of music, a mathematical science. Music is described as an expression of relationships, a mathematical relationship. Augustine’s claim was that number was needed to prevent chaos within the universe. Because these are mathematical concepts the same principles can be applied in the field of the visual arts. In the mediaeval period it was believed that contemplation of geometry would lead on to thoughts of the divine, pointing to what lies outside our normal fields of vision. Augustine realised that both music and architecture have this aesthetic value. Augustine was aware that architecture uses this science of number, but was aware that not ever y architect was necessarily aware of the rules, even though he could apply them. He considered though that there could be no building of beauty unless the rules were both applied and could be seen to have done so. The whole creative process has to be placed within a framework of mathematical rules, of harmony and proportion. The contemplation of such things were believed to lead to a revelation of God. Mention is made of wave after wave of iconoclasm which aimed to limit this aim of medieval art, but which was never able to fully suppress it. Instead as time passed new styles emerged , ever more fitted to produce the religious experience aimed for . The Wisdom of Solomon is quoted , saying of God ‘Thou hast ordered all things in measure in number and weight ,’ ( Wisdom 11 v 21),2 with the complete creation being seen a heavenly composition, but also an artistic or architectural one. As part of this the buildings were seen as being right in the will of God as they produc e feelings of both awe and reverence of the divine. This, according to Curtius, was the world view of the time. They take the place in western Christianity, of the icon among Orthodox Christians, where ideas about the ultimate take the form of visual beauty. Two important strands of thought are described – the unusual version of Platonism based in Chartres, and from Clairvaux a more spiritual aspect. There was an emphasis upon mathematics and the consequences of such thinking. The word architect is discussed with its two early meanings: that of the simple mason and also the cleric in charge of a building. Then later came the idea of the architect not as a craftsman but as a scientist, a ‘theoreticus’ of his art, who quite deliberately uses scientific principles to achieve what is required. The author points how we must not impose modern ideas of what an architect is upon these medieval builders. We know value great craftsmanship, but such workers were little valu ed in that period, as compared with the theoreticus. Note that link with the word ‘theory ‘. These men were clerics. They did not actually create physical things, climb ladders or use building tools. That was the task of skilled craftspeople. Boethius is mentioned, with his idea that mere carrying out rules to create a work of art if akin to slavery , whereas knowledge of the science from which a work is created is like being a

Foreign Monetary System Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Foreign Monetary System - Essay Example There were also huge direct foreign investments in China during the 1990s (Zi et al, 2009). With the increased trade amongst the East Asian countries and huge direct foreign investments from countries like USA, it presented a great future ahead for China. However this was not the case, as it created â€Å"cyclic overheating†. After the revised Bretton Woods System, China’s exchange rate was pegged to the US dollar and creating an artificially low rate. These countries benefitted from this as China attracted foreign investment in their country with huge profit initiatives due to cheap labor and the finished products were exported to US. In retrospect, China used its export earnings and invested it in T-bonds in US, bringing down their interest rates, thus increasing investments in their own country. However, this made China totally dependent on the foreign investments and had no control over its money supply. This lead to the revaluation of the Chinese Renminbi (RMB) in 2005 which meant the currency was no longer pegged with US dollar but was market determined by a basket of currencies. This managed floating exchange rate system was the important change in the Monetary System of China. This move was important as the old Yuan-Dollar peg, resulted in over investments within the country and over evaluation of the Yuan. Hence, this move was made to cool down the cyclic overheating in the country (Wu, 2006). This cool down of the cyclic overheating in China had started before the revaluation of RMB. According to the study, this cool down was not achieving the full anticipated affects. With the anticipation of the revaluation in 2005, the money supply in the country grew from 2004 to 2005 by 14%, which resulted in an increase in the loans by 11%. The strong relationship between the loans and the real estate sector, led to an inflation of asset prices and land rents. As China relies on investments and exports to run its economy, it will take considerably more time to cool down the over investments and rectify the imbalances created by it. All the affects in the China’s Economy, whether they are large foreign exchange reserves, increased money supply, overheating of investments or asset price inflation are all focusing on its exchange rate. Thus the exchange rate system of China plays an integral part in its macroeconomic policies and management (Wu, 2006). In the recent years, China has had to face another challenge. Due to the efforts of the People’s Bank of China (PBC), the capital inflow started to decrease. However, due to the slowed global growth rate PBC has managed and adjusted the policies so that the growth rate of China does not fall at an alarming rate. The challenge here is that over the recent years, PBC and the policymakers have become adept at trying to slow down capital inflow, but are rather inexperienced when it comes to slowing down capital outflow. One way to create a more balanced inflow and outflo w is to decrease the cash reserves required for the Commercial Banks to keep. This was done in the first place to reduce the surplus liquidity formed by capital inflows. In this case, for the PBC to reverse the reduced growth it has to inject liquidity into the economy. As mentioned above, a way out currently adopted by China is the cut in the Required Reserve Ratio. This is a loose

Conducting a Strategic Management Project Essay Example for Free

Conducting a Strategic Management Project Essay Introduction Shell is one of the worlds leading energy group and petrochemicals companies. It has around102000 employees in more than 100 countries. The objectives of the Shell Group are to engage efficiently, responsibly and profitably in oil, oil products, gas, chemicals and other selected businesses and to participate in the search for and development of other sources of energy to meet evolving customer needs and the worlds growing demand for energy. Mission Statement Shells innovative approach ensures that they are ready to tackle the challenges of new energy futures. 1.1 Topic of investigation having a strategic implication. This report explains the team buildings and teams work in Shell and development of its research work progress within the organization. It also presents suitable analysis of the project management and planning, advisory and project implementation of work. In this report, positive results of theories and its test showed that effective teamwork can lead to a success and achieving critical goals of Shell. It may also be able to gain the sustainability of competitiveness. Moreover, study explains that how team performance can be improved through leadership with project planning to face the upcoming challenges in modern era of business environment Shell operates in. 1.2 The aim, scope and objectives of the project. †¢ How can we improve Shells research study about lubes oil? †¢ What strategy we should adapt for improving Shells research? †¢ How and effective team force can be made for this purpose? The aim of the project is to achieve such team management, technology and resources that meet the new emerging energy challenges. Shell need to adapt such management strategies which will make a strong workforce with experienced and skilful team members. Shell wants to be recognised as a great company-competitive successfully and a force for progress. Shell has a fundamental belief that they can make a difference in the world because of its worth in the global market. A strong consumer proposition has been developed for the brand and embodied in the line World Quality which communicates Shell value-based offering in a precise manner, to its core target audience. The purpose of the advertising in the first instance is to support this strong value proposition and secondly to tailor the m edia solution to the store. 1.3 Justifying the scope, aim and objective. In meeting the energy challenges, the world faces three hard truths. The first is that there has been a step-change in global energy demand, with rapidly developing countries like China and India entering the energy-intensive phase of growth. Even with huge improvements in energy efficiency and substantial growth in renewables, fossil fuels will still be the main element of the energy mix by mid-century. The second hard truth is that easy-to-access oil and gas is in decline. As a result, energy will come increasingly from unconventional sources, such as oil sands. The third hard truth is that the increased burning of fossil fuels especially coal for power generation could mean unacceptably high emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2) and other greenhouse gases that contribute to global warming and climate change. Meeting the energy challenge Shell is helping to meet the energy challenge with a broad range of approaches. It uses advanced technologies that can unlock oil and gas in more remote or hostile environments, and new techniques to extend the lives of existing fields. We are increasing production from unconventional sources, including oil sands. Shell helps make the most of cleaner-burning natural gas through our output of liquefied natural gas (LNG) and gas to liquids (GTL) products. We are helping to develop second-generation bio fuels that do not compete with food crops; and we are developers of wind and solar power. 1.4 Evaluation of project research methodology. Methodolgy Research Study should be verified by seniors because all research is based on practical data and that data may vary by location of the research and by person. Need to Understand the Hypothesis before research and development. Which department are more feasible and which person is more interested and suitable for that research. Research should be complete on time. Research conduct at same time on different locations 2.1 Identify sources of data and information that will support the aim of the project. For a company like Shell having the right information about the environment, customs, laws and customer needs is of key importance. To gather this information the company will firstly see the law of the country in which it is going to start business, as we are talking about their business in UK the law allows this business. Here in UK there is a high demand it is a rich environment for the company to run their business. Data about this can be obtained by doing surveys and examining the current market i.e. by observing the similar businesses running in the country. Scanning the Environment In this research study, an appropriate approach of environmental scanning is considered in the industrial organisations that are operating in the chemical industry. Different types of information were used in this study. It included general information about the industry and specific about the participating companies. The type of data that was included was; †¢ Formal data that concerns the companys character. †¢ Data that is publicly available, like in annual reports. †¢ Interviews of managers that provided the history and culture of the companies. This information was very important to analyse and research the topic and to see how other companies are operating in the industry. Strauss (1987) emphasizes the usefulness of the case study approach when used with grounded theory. Grounded theory seeks to generate theoretical statements and, ultimately, complex theories based on empirical evidence, although it can be used in different ways and reach various degrees of complexity. The research design framework adopted in this study can be described as a multiple case study, composed according to the theory building structure, as described by Yin (1989), i.e., where the sequence of chapters follow a theory-building logic, and using the grounded theory method of qualitative data analysis. 2.2 Synthesise the data and information for options or alternatives that support the project aims. An effective information infrastructure was implemented to assess the information required in this research, which included technological information, processes and information acquired by people. A rich collection of scientific and technical information was gathered, which was managed by professionals having different backgrounds. However, some companies just provided a consistent picture which was a small collection made up of journals, literature and reports mainly. The information being pervasive is one of the main reasons in having difficulty in accounting for the costs involved in the research as it depends on specific roles and their performance. The data that was collected showed that in medium or large chemical companies data and information was being handled by 50% staff while in smaller companies about 9% staff was involved. The scope of the companies was assessed by their li nks with Research and Development organisations and hoe they collaborate with the regulatory agencies. Strategic change Larger companies like Shell influence the planning adoption but some other factors also interfere with the tendency, for example in what form the organisation is and what is the management style of the organisation. No evidence was found that suggests that the subsector companies should adopt the planning technique as a planning tool. While, the planning offices are also rare and their main duty is to collect the difficult data which is needed by the top management for decision making. The strategic change analysed mainly talked about increasing the quality of the product, which includes mainly improving the conditions of production. Environmental protection was also an issue in some cases there were highly pollutant industries. Globalisation and diversification were also some important strategic changes. Companies that targeted globalization pursued growth in the industry but some companies just secured their positions in the internal market due to the threat of major competitors operating in the main market. Companies which had a little scope of growth adopted specialization. The main target was to improve the product quality. Some companies claimed that they always pursue improving the production quality while other companies admitted that they have to improve the quality of the product to satisfy the EC regulations. 2.3 Determine an option or alternative that supports the project aims. Other way of supporting the project aim is to use theoretical information and implement it directly on the company. Information is like team management theories. Inductive and deductive research can be used to gather information and to move towards the aim. Deductive research Deductive reasoning works from the more general to the more specific. Sometimes this is informally called a top down approach. Conclusion follows logically from premises Inductive research Inductive reasoning works the other way moving from specific observations to broader generalizations and theories. Informally, we sometimes call this a bottom up approach. Conclusion is likely based on premises..It involves a degree of uncertainty. Inductive type based on induction. Data is collected on a subject and researcher tries to develop theory from this data. 3.1 Evaluate the research analysis to enable conclusions to be made. Team Management It is difficult to build a team and maintain good working relationships. However, team members go through a number of development stages to work together effectively in team performance management. Individuals performing well are rewarded while those who are not performing good are motivated. The functions and roles of its members should be recognised by its team. The leader should establish continuous communication lines and set clear goals that are understood. A team that performs well accomplishes projects quickly and with less difficulty, misunderstanding, and divergence. Strategic Objectives Strategic goals or objectives are broad, high level aims, derived from organisations mission statement and purpose, affecting the whole organization (sometimes referred to as corporate aims). These will be: †¢ Long term (time horizon of several years), although they should be monitored regularly (typically annually) and may be revised periodically. †¢ Responsive to external factors such as new competition, changes in global economic conditions, or customer demands. The term strategic denotes a particular focus of the managers planning and decision making responsibilities. Senior mangers focus mostly on why questions, concentrating on the big picture and providing vision and leadership for employees across the whole organisation. Alignment of team performance and corporate goals To achieve the corporate aims it is necessary that the direction of the teams is towards the long term strategic goal. Managers and team leaders have to keep in mind what they need to achieve overall. And hence, to control the teams in such a way that either they are working on long projects or short its all adding up to the final goal. In the case of Shell the main objective of the company is to provide good quality chemicals. To achieve this there has to be a proper direct and control system of the staff working at the stores from the top management to the staff working on the floor. A good communication and understanding will always lead to easy achievement of goals, satisfying the customer at the end. Mangers are supposed to take into account the demand and supply of the products to make sure every product is available on time and then work should be allocated to the subordinates in a proper system to get all the work done systematically and easily. Proper team management should be done by the supervisors and the team leaders. All the staff should be divided into small teams which have to work in different sections. Proper training should be given to all the team members and a standard way of achieving the goal. This performance target should be given to all the team members and should be monitored and reviewed constantly. This standard should be according to the company policy and should be according to health and safety and customer satisfaction oriented. Providing good work at the end of every shift, which is the availability of all the products on time with good customer service. 3.2 Recommend a course of action that achieves the project aim. Skills that need some development †¢ Communicating †¢ Decision-making †¢ Leadership †¢ Prioritizing †¢ Valuing and †¢ Skills need to be achieved. †¢ To respond problems, experiences and opportunities from which to learn. †¢ To generate ideas without constraints of policy or structure or feasibility. †¢ Involving with other people i.e ideas bouncing off them, solving problems as part of a team. †¢ Need to have a limelight/high visibility i.e can chair meetings, lead discussion, and give presentations. †¢ To be engaging myself in short, activities such as business games, competitive teamwork tasks, role playing exercises. Supporting Others †¢ Motivating †¢ Analysing †¢ Delegating †¢ Reporting 3.3 Analyse the impact of the recommendations. Training courses at Shell for career progression. Management Development Programme Includes: †¢ Consumer Legislation †¢ Customer Service †¢ Employment Law †¢ Health and Safety †¢ Human Resource Management †¢ Policies Procedures Opportunity development builds competitive positions by identifying and utilizing opportunities in the environment. Opportunity development is necessary because your existing positions are constantly being degraded by change. Opportunities exist as openings in the environment that allow you to advance your position in the direction of your mission. These openings are usually small, but by taking advantage of the small openings, you eventually position yourself for the big advances you want. Training After the initial audit our ethical trade specialists work with the suppliers to support them through remediation of any issues that are found. Training is offered to suppliers on particular issues and best practice, at regular intervals. Shell is in the process of more than tripling the size of its own ethical trade team that focuses on training and intensive problem solving with its suppliers. These individuals are trained to the highest levels and are equipped to address endemic problems in the supply chain and come up with viable solutions for the suppliers. 4.1 Produce the results of the investigative project. The purpose of this study was to explain the team buildings and teams work in Shell and development of its research work progress within the organization. It also presents suitable analysis of the project management and planning, advisory and project implementation of work. In this report, positive results of theories and its test showed that effective teamwork can lead to a success and achieving critical goals of Shell. It may also be able to gain the sustainability of competitiveness. Moreover, study explains that how team performance can be improved through leadership with project planning to face the upcoming challenges in modern era of business environment Shell operates in. The main result was in the adoption of the learning and training courses within the company in order to prosper and enhance in the future. Shell is one of the leading companies in the world in the chemical an oil sector and it felt pride in taking these training and development steps in order to move forward and to achieve its project aim as a result of the research program. 4.2 Evaluate the impact of the investigative project The future sustainability of any organization heavily depends on the quality of project management to be able to cope with todays dynamic business environment. There is direct co relation between stake holder business project and the people within the firm. Shell is one of the four largest companies in the UK and has been ranked number one of the top 100 graduate employers in the UK and all over the world. The sustainability of Shell competitive advantage of its brightest people is depending on the successful team work and leadership. The best leaders know how to get others to follow and the best team members know how to follow their leaders. REFRENCES BOOKS: Aguilar, F.J. (1967) Scanning the Business Environment. New York: McMillan. Robert , buttrick ,(2005).The project workout: pearso education limited Edinburgh gate Education 3rd (1) pp, 305-350 Strauss, A. Corbin, J, (1990). Basics of Qualitative Research: Grounded Theory Procedures and Techniques. London: Sage. Strauss, A. (1987) Qualitative Analysis For Social Scientists. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Total Quality Management: The route to improving performance by John S. Oakland (Hardcover 15 Mar 1993) Shell employee control hand book 07/08 Personal development as a strategic manager unit 7001: level 7 strategic management and leadership CMI Checklist: †¢ Personal development planning †¢ Developing strategy for world class business E-learning †¢ Your role in improving personal effectiveness †¢ Development needs and planning development Web links: †¢ www.milum.net 13/12/2009 †¢ www.enotes.com 13/12/2009 †¢ www.quickmba.com 13/12/2009 †¢ www.managers.org.uk 10/12/2009 †¢ www.shell.co.uk 20/12/2009

Relationship Between EI and OP Amongst Librarians

Relationship Between EI and OP Amongst Librarians CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 INTRODUCTION This chapter is seeks to verify the limited studies into the relationship between EI and OP amongst librarians. There appears to be very little research, or study investigating the areas synthesizing library administration issues and the study of EI in information works. Although researchers allude to the need to be able to understand and manage their own emotions as an information provider, the lack of research combining the areas of EI of librarians in Malaysian public libraries suggests a large gap in a very important research area (Quinn, 2002; Hernon, 2008 and Singer, 2005). Consequently, a study that focuses on a public librarians perceived need for EI would fill this gap and therefore contribute to the existing EI literature. The following information is provided as a literature review encompassing an overview of the different constructs and theories of EI, as researched by several authors. The historical context and development of Malaysian Public Libraries will also be explored in this literature review. The topics of EI, and the area of information works, are reviewed individually within, as there is very little research on issues pertaining to the combination of these topics. This chapter furnishes an encompassing review on past literature, which covers a richness of information on EI research in general. There are 8 parts itemized as follows: Part 1 contains the introduction; Part 2 gives the description of EI history, theory, models and development; Part 3 discusses EI and applications in the workplace EI; Part 4 discusses librarians standard skills and capabilities; Part 5 shows clearly occupational performance; Part 6 examines the relationship between EI and performance, and finally, Part 7 summarizes all elements of this review. 2.2 EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE 2.2.1 Introduction Twenty years ago, researchers didnt much pay attention the topic of emotions in the workplace, perhaps because emotions were viewed too difficult to be measured and were thought of as illogical, unstable, and not fit for decision making tool; they were therefore less popular and largely unexplored among researchers (Arvey et al., 1998 and Muchinsky, 2000). Early 1990 however, researchers have begun to recognize that emotions should not be excluded from skill and competency of organizational, because it can be used in ways that contribute constructively to organizations (Arvey et al., 1998 and Fredman, Ghini and Dijk, 2008). In relation to this, it is motivating researchers to study the emotions in organizations. For instance, study on occupational performance has adopted a more affective focus. Additionally, new interest in the people feeling on work behavior has been influential in turning attention to the more emotional side of workplace experiences (e.g., Brief, Butcher, Roberson, 1995; Fisher Ashkanasy, 2000). Fisher and Ashkanasy (2000) and Ryback Wenny (2007) also claim the popularity of EI as a mechanism for new research in the workplace. The information below was derived from the previous empirical studies and multiple formats of resources. 2.1.2 Definition There is no definitive definition of EI. Many authors define EI as the ability to understand feelings, either internally or externally. Numerous studies indicate that, knowledge, cognitive skills and abilities are usually blended with performance. The term and concepts of EI were coined by Golemen (1995; 1998) in his two books, EI and Working with EI and developed a dimension and attribute of EI as self-awareness, self-regulation, motivation, empathy, and social skill. However different authors have defined EI to some extent differently from Goleman. Mayer and Saloveys (1997) meaning is a kind of intelligence in that it emphasizes thinking, perceiving, understanding, appraising, discriminating, and identifying emotion. Golemans concept of EI, in distinction, relates to the way people function emotionally if their functioning is at its potential or at least is not problematic. From the viewpoint of Weisingers (1998) gives descriptions and definition of EI is comparatively close to Golemans when he described EI is the intelligent use of emotions. It in comparison to Golemans, Cooper and Sawafs (1997) delimitation gives greater attention to the higher directions of human behavior, mainly aspects correlated with leadership. Their concept comprehends factors such as intuition, integrity, personal purpose, and creativity which is not emphasized by Goleman. In contrast, Simmons and Simmons (1997) approach to EI are very different from Golemans when they relate EI to multiple relatively invariant character traits. These theorists and many others defined and explained the concept of EI. There is no single definition in defining EI. Here I will include the five most popular ones. EI can be defined as: 1. â€Å"the ability to monitor ones own and others feelings and emotions, to discriminate among them, and to use the information to guide ones thinking and action† (Mayer Salovey,1993). 2. â€Å"ability to recognize and express emotions in yourself, your ability to understand the emotions of colleagues.† (Gardner, 1983). 3. â€Å"the intelligent use of emotions: you intentionally make your emotions work for you by using them to help guide your behaviour and thinking in ways that enhance your results.† (Weisinger, 1998). 4. â€Å"the ability to: 1) be aware of, to understand, and to express oneself; 2) be aware of, to understand, and to relate to others; 3) deal with strong emotions and control ones impulses; and 4) adapt to change and to solve problems of a personal or a social nature (Reuven Bar-On, 1998). 5. â€Å"the capacity for recognizing our own feelings and those of others, for motivating ourselves, and for managing emotions well in ourselves and in our relationships.(Goleman, 1998) Based on the profusion of definitions, there seems to be no major differences among the definition of EI throughout the years. In consequence, EI generally entails the ability to understand and recognize feeling internally or intrapersonal and externally or interpersonal to make good decision. More timely, for this study, the researcher adopts the comprehensive of EI articulated by Goleman (1998) â€Å"a learned capability based on EI that resulted in outstanding performance at work†. EI echoes how an individuals possible for mastering the skills of Self-Awareness, Self-Management, Social Awareness, and Relationship Management translates into work performance. Having defined EI, the following sections will highlight the literature related to EI and performance in library works. 2.1.2 Evolution of EI In 1920, Thordike described the concept of EI as a form of social intelligence. He has divided intelligence into three facets; understanding and managing ideas (abstract intelligence), concrete objects (mechanical intelligence), and people (social intelligence). In his expression: By social intelligence is meant the ability to understand and manage men and women, boys and girls to act wisely in human relations. Further, in 1940, Wechsler, viewed intelligence as an effect and conceived that assessments of general intelligence are not adequate and consider that non-intellectual factors, such as personality, will influence the development of an individuals intelligence. Additionally, attention in social intelligence or other intelligence was reinvigorated in 1983 when Gardner introduced the theory of multiple intelligence (Brualdi, 1996; Gardner, 1995) and proposed an extensive field of differing intelligences. In relation to this, Mayer and Salovey, (1990) coined the term EI in their article â€Å"EI,† from the journal â€Å"Imagination, Cognition and Personality† while Goleman, (1995) brought EI to the characteristic and developed his own model of EI. Ultimately, the concept of EI has been expanded and applied to numerous disciplines including services (e.g. Sales, Hospitality, banking, and school and information services etc). The evolving of EI as described in 2.1 below. 2.1.2.1 Social Intelligence Social intelligence can be defined differently. Social intelligence can be defined as â€Å"the ability to understand and manage people to act wisely in human relations† (Thorndike, 1920, p. 228). Nevertheless, in the late 1930s, Thorndike and Stein (1937) altered the earlier definition of social intelligence to read, the â€Å"ability to understand and manage people† while a few years later, Gardner (1983) outlined his theory of multiple intelligences and he described in detail seven â€Å"relatively autonomous† of human intellectual competences (eg; linguistic, logical-mathematical, spatial, musical, personal, interpersonal, and intrapersonal). Likewise, Moss and Hunt (1927) described social intelligence as the ability to get along with others (p. 108). Six years later as Vernon (1933), defined the social intelligence as the persons ability to get along with people in general, social technique or ease in society, knowledge of social matters, susceptibility to s timuli from other members of a group, as well as insight into the temporary moods or underlying personality traits of strangers (p. 44). It was recognised by Maulding (2002) that EI was closely related to personal intelligence and was further qualified by Gardner with is employment of two personal intelligence aspects; intrapersonal and interpersonal. Intrapersonal intelligence was further depicted by Gardner as the capacity to be discriminating among ones feelings; to label them, and use them in ways to understand and guide ones behavior and interpersonal intelligence as â€Å"turns outward, to other individuals†. This focal point examined â€Å"the ability to notice and make distinctions among other individuals, and in particular, among their moods, temperaments, motivations, and intentions†. Thus â€Å"Personal Intelligence† covers the close relationship of both intrapersonal and interpersonal intelligence because, as Gardner noted, â€Å"these two forms of knowledge are intimately intermingled†. 2.1.2.1 Intelligence There were numerous outstanding theorists were asked to define intelligence; unfortunate some definitions were obtained (Sternberg Detterman, 1986) differently. White (2002) clarification, ‘In philosophical works we can find discussions of consciousness, perception and sensation, thought, action, memory, emotion and imagination, but rarely anything on intelligence (White, 2002, p.78). In other words, Hand (2004) discussed the concept of Intelligence that is in general as stipulating technical senses and attempting to describe the ordinary sense. In contrast (Neisser et al., 1996) described intelligence are attempts to clarify and organize a vast array of phenomena that include: â€Å"the ability to understand complex ideas, to adapt effectively to environments, to learn from experience, to engage in various forms of reasoning, to overcome obstacles by taking thought†. Even when experts in intelligence discuss the definition there appears more controversy than consensus (Matthews et al., 2002). Unlike other definitions of intelligence, Wechsler (1958) described intelligence as â€Å"the aggregate or the global capacity of the individual to act purposely, to think rationally, and to deal effectively with his environment†. Although many definitions were given by different authors, however, many studies of intelligence, in particular the psychometric approach, have provided a â€Å"predictor† of success (Mayer, Salovey, Caruso, 2000). 2.1.2.2 Emotions Emotion can be categorized as part of Social Intelligence was introduced by Gardner in 1930. The science of emotion has been problematic and is impeded with the complexities of linking tangible realities to the elusive, subjective, and experiential nature of emotions (Matthews et al., 2002). In the context of psychology, Salovey and Mayer provided a definition of emotions as: Organized responses crossing boundaries of many psychological subsystems, including physiological, cognitive, motivational and experiential systems. Emotions typically arise in response to an event, either internal or external, that has a positively or negatively balanced meaning for an individual. Emotions can be distinguished from the closely related concept of mood in that emotions are shorter and generally more intense (1990, p. 186). 2.1.2.3 Emotional Intelligence Mayer and Salovey (1990) wrote an article and outlining their EI framework. EI was listed by them at that time as a division of social intelligence. Elements of Gardners personal intelligence study were employed when Mayer and Salovey defined EI as â€Å"the ability to monitor ones own and others feelings, to discriminate amongst them and to use this information to guide ones thinking and actions† (p. 189). The book entitled EI (1995) was published as a way of coping with the pointless acts that were taking place, (Salopek, 1998) and became the best seller status. After that the interest in EI took place (Mandell Pherwani, 2003). Goleman persistent on this success in 1998 with a book entitled Working with EI where he reviewed 18 EI competencies usable in the workplace. Mayer and Saloveys (1990) definition of EI were modified by Goleman (1998c) with his revised definition of EI, â€Å" ‘EI refers to the capacity for recognizing our own feelings and those of others, for motivating ourselves, and for managing emotions well in ourselves and in our relationships† p317). Goleman listed 5 social and emotional groups self-awareness, self-regulation, motivation, empathy, and social skills. This was subsequently reduced to just 4 after the arrival and review of new information. He continues to refine his model and emphasize a mixture of interpersonal intelligence and intrapersonal intelligence in defining EI and employed the four clusters (Maulding, 2002). The 4 new groups were labelled as self-awareness, self-management, social awareness, and relationship management (Goleman, Boyatzis, McKee, 2002). Self-awareness and self-management were merged into a â€Å"personal competence† category which included the capabilities that â€Å"determine how we manage ourselves† (Goleman, Boyatzis, McKee, 2002, p. 39). The capabilities that â€Å"determine how we manage relationships† define the Social Competency category (Goleman, Boyatzis, McKee, 2002, p. 39) and include the social awareness and relationship management groups. In the context of thois study, researcher will use the GolemansModel as baseline or guideline to develop EI measurement for librarians. Yet a few competencies related to Malaysian public librarian nature will be considered (eg, spiritual, information literacy, Islamic values ect.) in the new model. Table 2.1 Five Periods of Development in Emotions and Intelligence in the Past Century Period The Emergence of The EI Concept 1900-1969 (Thorndike, 1920) Intelligence and Emotions as Separate Narrow Fields Psychometric approach to intelligence is developed and refined.  · Movement from Darwins theory for heritability and evolution of emotional responses to now being viewed as culturally determined.  · Social Intelligence (Thorndike, 1920) as the concept is introduced. 1970-1989 (David Wechsler, 1940) Non-intellective aspects of general intelligence The field of cognition and affect emerged to examine how emotions interacted with thoughts.  · Gardner (1983) theory of multiple intelligences described an intrapersonal and an interpersonal intelligence.  · Empirical work on social intelligence developed four components: social skills, empathy skills, pro-social attitudes, and emotionality (sensitivity). 1990-1993 (Gardner, 1983) Multiple intelligences; interpersonal intelligence-people smart; intrapersonal intelligence-self-smart Mayer and Salovey publish a series of articles on EI.  · First ability measure of EI published.  · Editor of the journal Intelligence argued for an existence of EI.  · Further developments for EI in the brain sciences. 1994-1997 (Goleman 1995) The Popularization and Broadening EQ  · Goleman (1995) publishes EI which becomes worldwide best-seller.  · Time magazine used the term â€Å"EQ† on its cover (Gibbs, 1995, October 2).  · Measures of EI using mixed model theories were published. 1998-Present (Peter Salovey Jack Mayer, 1990 EI  · Refinements to the concept of EI.  · New measures of EI introduced.  · Appearance of peer-reviewed articles on the subject. 2.2.4 2.2 Model of EI 2.2.1 Introduction There are many researchers that exist within the area of intelligences developed several models and theories to address EI (Gardner, 1990; Bar-On, 2008; Bernet, 1996; Brown, 1999; Brualdi, 1996; Burgess, Palmer, Stough Walls, 2001; Caruso, Mayer, Perkins Salovey, 1999; Cherniss, 2007; Ciarrochi, Chan, Caputi, Roberts, 2001; Dulewicz Higgs, 2000; Finegan, 1998; Gardner, 1995; Goleman, 1995; Goleman, 1998; Goleman, 2008; Langley, 2000; Mayer Geher, 2007; Mayer, Caruso Salovey, 2003; Mayer, Salovey Caruso, 2000; Mayer, 2001; Mayer, Salovey, Caruso, Sitarenios, 2001; Mayer, Perkins, Caruso Salovey, 2001; McDowelle Bell, 2000; Pfeiffer, 2001; Reiff, Hates, Bramel, 2001; Salovey Mayer, 1990; Salovey Sluyter, 1997; Weiss, 2000). The model of EI is comprised into two types; the ability model and mixed model. a) Ability model can be defined, EI as a set of mental abilities and constructs claims about the importance of emotional information and the potential uses of reasoning well with that information. Representatives of this model are Mayer and Salovey (1997) with four-branch model of EI. b) mixed model, whereas more commonly orienting and mixes mental abilities with personality attributes. Model from Goleman (2001), Cooper Sawaf (1997) and Bar-on (1997) are representatives for mixed model, but they expanded the meaning of EI by explicitly mixing the ability to understand and process emotion with other diverse parts of personality or skills, hence creating mixed approaches to EI. On the other word, the mixed model is defined as a combination of non cognitive abilities, personality traits and competencies (Goldsmith, 2008). 2.2.2 Models Assessing Emotional Intelligence 2.1.2 Bar-Ons Model of EI Bar-On reports that the EQ-i â€Å"was originally constructed as an experimental instrument designed to examine the concept of emotional and social functioning in the early 1980s (Bar-On, 2001, p.363). He created the term emotional quotient (EQ) to describe his mixed approach to the evaluation of an individuals general intelligence. He explained that the emotional quotient reflects our ability to operate successfully with other people and with our feelings (Bar-On, 2001). Bar-On developed the Bar-On EQ-i and instrument has been translated into twenty-two languages and normative data has been collected in more than fifteen countries (Bar-On, 2001). This EI inventory is the first scientifically developed and validated measure of EI that reflects ones ability to deal with environmental challenges and helps to predict ones success in life, including professional and personal pursuits (AbiSamra, 2000 and Bar-on, 2001). This model is separated into five different scales with fifteen subscales as detailed in Table 2.3. The first of these scales assess an individuals Intrapersonal EQ which consists of self-regard, emotional self-awareness, assertiveness, independence and self- actualization. The second scale assesses the individuals Interpersonal EQ consisting of empathy, social responsibility, and interpersonal relationships. Adaptability EQ is the third measure of Bar-Ons scale. This scale focuses on reality testing, flexibility and problem solving or how an individual handles emotion in the moment. The fourth scale assesses an individuals Stress Management EQ. This scale is comprised of stress tolerance and impulse control. The fifth and final scale of the EQ-i measures an individuals General Mood EQ, consisting of optimism and happiness. Bar-On reports that the research â€Å"findings obtained to date suggest that the EQ-i is measuring emotional and social intelligence†¦more specifically, the EQ-i is tapping the ability to be aware of, understand, control, and express emotions† (Bar-On, 2001, pp.372 -373). This ability model created by Bar-On is a selection of emotional, personal and social abilities that affect an individuals overall ability to manage the daily pressures and demands of life. Bar-On further reports that the ability is â€Å"apparently based on a core capacity to be aware of, understand, control and express emotions effectively† (p.374). Although Bar-Ons early research focused on the emotional quotient, it was not until the 1990s that EI truly began to receive recognition as a distinct form of intelligence (Geher, Warner Brown, 2001; Salovey Sluyter, 1997). The concept of an individuals EI (EI) was explained and expanded upon by Mayer and Salovey in 1990 (Mayer, Perkins, Caruso S alovey, 2001), and popularized by Daniel Goleman in 1995 (Goleman, 1995). 2.1.3 Golemans In 1995, Goleman elaborated on the original Salovey Mayer definition of EI to suggest five major EI domains as reported in Table 4. Table 4: Golemans original model of EI. Golemans Model of EI 1. Assessment of emotions 2. Regulation of emotions 3. Motivating and emotional self control 4. Understanding and recognizing emotions 5. Relationships and emotions The first of Golemans EI domains includes knowing ones emotions. This domain involves assessing and knowing what the emotion is as it occurs. The second domain of managing emotions is described as handling those emotions in an appropriate manner that builds on self-awareness. Motivating oneself or emotional self-control is the third domain. The fourth domain involves recognizing emotions in others. This domain involves empathy and Goleman considers it to be a â€Å"people skill† (Goleman, 1995, p.43). The last domain in Golemans original model consists of handling relationships. Goleman states that the ability of handling a relationship is in part the ability of managing emotions in others. Goleman contends that capacities for EI each have a distinctive involvement to form our lives. To some extent, these capacities build upon one another to formulate social skills. These abilities do not guarantee that people will develop or display emotional competencies. Goleman suggests th at individuals use competencies in many areas across many spectrums. Goleman has currently revised his original theory of EI as shown in Table 5. He now suggests that there are four domains rather than his original five domains (Goleman, 2001B). Table 5: Golemans current model of EI. Golemans Current Model of EI 1. Emotional Self Awareness 2. Emotional Self Management 3. Social Awareness 4. Relationship Management The first component or cluster of EI is that of Emotional Self- Awareness, or knowing what one feels. Recognizing ones own feelings, how they affect ones performance, and the realization of our own strengths as well as our weaknesses, is an important part of the self-awareness cluster. The second component of EI is Emotional Self-Management. This component reflects the ability to regulate stressful affects such as anxiety or anger, as well as how to deal with those situations. This component is reflected when an individual seems to keep their cool during a stressful situation. Self-management also reflects the abilities of an individual to be flexible and adaptable, looking at different perspectives of a situation. Social-Awareness, the third component, encompasses the competency of empathy. The Social-Awareness cluster is described as the cluster where an individual is aware of others emotions, concerns, and needs. Being aware of this information and internally processing it, allows the individual to read situations and act accordingly. The Relationship Management component makes up the fourth segment of Golemans current model. This component relates to how we interact with others in emotional situations. Goleman believes that if we cannot control our emotional outbursts and impulses, and we lack the necessary skill of empathy, there is less chance that we will be effective in our relationships. The Relationship Management cluster includes many of the skills necessary for being successful in social situations. Communication is also an essential element in the relationship management cluster (Goleman, 2001b). According to Goleman (2001a), EI at its most general rating, refers to the abilities to identify, reflect and adjust emotions in ourselves as well as to be aware of the emotions of others. Currently, Goleman relates the capacities for each domain in his EI model are: makes a unique contribution to job performance; strong communications; capacities build upon one another; does not guarantee people will develop or display the associated competencies; The general list is to some extent applicable to all jobs. Although Goleman explains that these capacities are hierarchical, meaning that one cannot fully pass on to the next phase or tier without accomplishing the previous stage with some degree of success. These capacities are not fixed and an individual can experience many levels at the same time. Goleman (1998) also states that EI determines our potential for learning the practical skills that underlie the four EI clusters. He maintains that emotional competence illustrates how much of that potential we have realized by learning and mastering skills and translating EI into on the job capabilities. According to Hall Torrance (1980), empathy and super-awareness to the needs of others is a trait that lies outside the realm of human abilities that can be measured. Hall Torrance report that many attempts have been made to measure these abilities, but with very little success. In their view, if empathy and awareness to others needs were accessed in a way that was based on reasoning, those qualities may reflect a measurable intellectual ability that would be associated with friendliness, compassion and happiness; all traits reported to be representative characteristics of emotionally intelligent individuals (Goleman, 1995; Pfeiffer, 2001). The information reported in 1980 by Hall and Torrance was prescient in that these traits are currently being measured as traits of EI. The traits of flexibility and freedom of thoughts as well as a high rating of motivation, either intrinsic or extrinsic, the ability to express emotion, the ability to manage stress, self confidence, and the ability to cope with tension are also valued characteristics of EI (Caruso, Mayer, Perkins, Salovey, 1999; Cherniss, 1998; Goleman, 1995, 1997; Levinson, 1997; Olszewski-Kubilius, 2000; Pfeiffer, 2001; Reiff, Hates Bramel, 2001). Currently, Goleman emphasizes that EI at its most general rating, refers to the abilities to identify, reflect and adjust emotions in ourselves as well as to be aware of the emotions of others (Cherniss Goleman, 2001; Goleman, 2001A). According to Goleman, EI refers to the ability to recognize our own feelings and those of others, to motivate ourselves, and to manage emotions in ourselves and in our relationships. (Clawson 1999; Dulewicz Higgs 2000; Goleman 1998; Burgess, Palmer, Stough Walls 2001). In another cognitive research study conducted by Sternberg, Wagner, Williams, and Horvath (cited in McDowelle Bell, 1998) it is reported that these differences in IQ and success at work accounted for between 4% and 25% variance of job performance. This leads us to the conclusion that a major part of what enhances our job performance is affected by non-IQ factors. McDowelle Bell (1998) state â€Å"emotionality and rationality complement each other in the work world. They can be viewe d as inseparable parts of the life of the organization. 2.1.4 Salovey and Mayers Since the origination of the theory of EI in 1990, Mayer and Salovey have worked diligently to refine their academic and scientific model of EI model. Their current model, developed in 1997, is decidedly cognitive in focus and revolves around four tiers or ratings that are not genetically fixed or set in early childhood. As people grow and develop, they also seem to develop a greater sense of EI suggesting that these traits of EI can be developed over time (Epstein, 1999; Ford-Martin, 2001; Goleman, 2001A; Weiss, 2000). According to Mayer, Perkins, Caruso Salovey (2001), the emotionally intelligent person is skilled in four distinct branches: identifying, using, understanding, and regulating emotions. These four distinct areas are outlined in Mayer and Saloveys current model. The newest model begins with the idea that emotions contain information about relationships (Mayer, Salovey, Caruso, and Sitarenios (2001). (See Table 6). The recognition, the evaluation and the communication of emotions initiate the first branch of Mayer and Saloveys model. The second branch involves using emotions to think constructively such as utilizing those emotions to make judgments, the consideration of an alternative viewpoint, and an appreciation that a change in emotional state and point of view can promote various types of solutions to problems. The third branch combines the abilities of classifying and differentiating between emotions to help integrate different feelings. This rating also works toward helping us t o form rules about the feelings we experience. The fourth and final branch involves the ability to take the emotions we experience and use them in support of a social goal (Finegan, 1998; Cherniss Goleman, 2001). The four hierarchical developmental branches established by Mayer and Salovey in 1997, although different from Golemans ratings of EI, seem to incorporate several fundamental principles of personal development theory. These developmental stages discussed by Salovey and Mayer are reported to be hierarchical. The Mayer and Salovey model frames the complexity of emotional skills that develop from the first tier and continue through the fourth, whereas Golemans competencies, in contrast, can be viewed along a continuum of mastery. Caruso, Mayer, Perkins, Salovey (2001), expected individuals need to be able to identify their emotions as well as the emotions of others. Using those emotions, understanding those emotions, and having the ability to manage those emotions is also required to be successful. Caruso et al. (2001) relate that when an individual works in an administrative or work environment that requires the cooperation and collaboration, the skills of EI become even more essential. Caruso et al. (2001) also report that EI can assist in facilitating this work in helping to generate new and creative ideas and solutions to problems. At times, some of the problems that are challenging an individual can be very complex, while at other times the problem-solving task may be effortless. According to Caruso et al. (2001), problem solving requires creative thought to generate ideal solutions. Caruso et al. (2001) deduce that EI can help the individual to think creatively in many ways such as, viewing the problem from multiple perspectives, brainstorming or generating new and creative ideas, being inventive, generating original ideas and solutions to the problem, and defining and recognizing new solutions. Table 2.3: Characteristics of Selected EI Model Bar-On (1980) Mixed Model Goleman (2005) Performance Model Mayer, Caruso and Salovey (1990) Ability Model (1) Awareness, Intrapersonal Assertiveness, EQ Self-Regard, Relationship Between EI and OP Amongst Librarians Relationship Between EI and OP Amongst Librarians CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 INTRODUCTION This chapter is seeks to verify the limited studies into the relationship between EI and OP amongst librarians. There appears to be very little research, or study investigating the areas synthesizing library administration issues and the study of EI in information works. Although researchers allude to the need to be able to understand and manage their own emotions as an information provider, the lack of research combining the areas of EI of librarians in Malaysian public libraries suggests a large gap in a very important research area (Quinn, 2002; Hernon, 2008 and Singer, 2005). Consequently, a study that focuses on a public librarians perceived need for EI would fill this gap and therefore contribute to the existing EI literature. The following information is provided as a literature review encompassing an overview of the different constructs and theories of EI, as researched by several authors. The historical context and development of Malaysian Public Libraries will also be explored in this literature review. The topics of EI, and the area of information works, are reviewed individually within, as there is very little research on issues pertaining to the combination of these topics. This chapter furnishes an encompassing review on past literature, which covers a richness of information on EI research in general. There are 8 parts itemized as follows: Part 1 contains the introduction; Part 2 gives the description of EI history, theory, models and development; Part 3 discusses EI and applications in the workplace EI; Part 4 discusses librarians standard skills and capabilities; Part 5 shows clearly occupational performance; Part 6 examines the relationship between EI and performance, and finally, Part 7 summarizes all elements of this review. 2.2 EMOTIONAL INTELLIGENCE 2.2.1 Introduction Twenty years ago, researchers didnt much pay attention the topic of emotions in the workplace, perhaps because emotions were viewed too difficult to be measured and were thought of as illogical, unstable, and not fit for decision making tool; they were therefore less popular and largely unexplored among researchers (Arvey et al., 1998 and Muchinsky, 2000). Early 1990 however, researchers have begun to recognize that emotions should not be excluded from skill and competency of organizational, because it can be used in ways that contribute constructively to organizations (Arvey et al., 1998 and Fredman, Ghini and Dijk, 2008). In relation to this, it is motivating researchers to study the emotions in organizations. For instance, study on occupational performance has adopted a more affective focus. Additionally, new interest in the people feeling on work behavior has been influential in turning attention to the more emotional side of workplace experiences (e.g., Brief, Butcher, Roberson, 1995; Fisher Ashkanasy, 2000). Fisher and Ashkanasy (2000) and Ryback Wenny (2007) also claim the popularity of EI as a mechanism for new research in the workplace. The information below was derived from the previous empirical studies and multiple formats of resources. 2.1.2 Definition There is no definitive definition of EI. Many authors define EI as the ability to understand feelings, either internally or externally. Numerous studies indicate that, knowledge, cognitive skills and abilities are usually blended with performance. The term and concepts of EI were coined by Golemen (1995; 1998) in his two books, EI and Working with EI and developed a dimension and attribute of EI as self-awareness, self-regulation, motivation, empathy, and social skill. However different authors have defined EI to some extent differently from Goleman. Mayer and Saloveys (1997) meaning is a kind of intelligence in that it emphasizes thinking, perceiving, understanding, appraising, discriminating, and identifying emotion. Golemans concept of EI, in distinction, relates to the way people function emotionally if their functioning is at its potential or at least is not problematic. From the viewpoint of Weisingers (1998) gives descriptions and definition of EI is comparatively close to Golemans when he described EI is the intelligent use of emotions. It in comparison to Golemans, Cooper and Sawafs (1997) delimitation gives greater attention to the higher directions of human behavior, mainly aspects correlated with leadership. Their concept comprehends factors such as intuition, integrity, personal purpose, and creativity which is not emphasized by Goleman. In contrast, Simmons and Simmons (1997) approach to EI are very different from Golemans when they relate EI to multiple relatively invariant character traits. These theorists and many others defined and explained the concept of EI. There is no single definition in defining EI. Here I will include the five most popular ones. EI can be defined as: 1. â€Å"the ability to monitor ones own and others feelings and emotions, to discriminate among them, and to use the information to guide ones thinking and action† (Mayer Salovey,1993). 2. â€Å"ability to recognize and express emotions in yourself, your ability to understand the emotions of colleagues.† (Gardner, 1983). 3. â€Å"the intelligent use of emotions: you intentionally make your emotions work for you by using them to help guide your behaviour and thinking in ways that enhance your results.† (Weisinger, 1998). 4. â€Å"the ability to: 1) be aware of, to understand, and to express oneself; 2) be aware of, to understand, and to relate to others; 3) deal with strong emotions and control ones impulses; and 4) adapt to change and to solve problems of a personal or a social nature (Reuven Bar-On, 1998). 5. â€Å"the capacity for recognizing our own feelings and those of others, for motivating ourselves, and for managing emotions well in ourselves and in our relationships.(Goleman, 1998) Based on the profusion of definitions, there seems to be no major differences among the definition of EI throughout the years. In consequence, EI generally entails the ability to understand and recognize feeling internally or intrapersonal and externally or interpersonal to make good decision. More timely, for this study, the researcher adopts the comprehensive of EI articulated by Goleman (1998) â€Å"a learned capability based on EI that resulted in outstanding performance at work†. EI echoes how an individuals possible for mastering the skills of Self-Awareness, Self-Management, Social Awareness, and Relationship Management translates into work performance. Having defined EI, the following sections will highlight the literature related to EI and performance in library works. 2.1.2 Evolution of EI In 1920, Thordike described the concept of EI as a form of social intelligence. He has divided intelligence into three facets; understanding and managing ideas (abstract intelligence), concrete objects (mechanical intelligence), and people (social intelligence). In his expression: By social intelligence is meant the ability to understand and manage men and women, boys and girls to act wisely in human relations. Further, in 1940, Wechsler, viewed intelligence as an effect and conceived that assessments of general intelligence are not adequate and consider that non-intellectual factors, such as personality, will influence the development of an individuals intelligence. Additionally, attention in social intelligence or other intelligence was reinvigorated in 1983 when Gardner introduced the theory of multiple intelligence (Brualdi, 1996; Gardner, 1995) and proposed an extensive field of differing intelligences. In relation to this, Mayer and Salovey, (1990) coined the term EI in their article â€Å"EI,† from the journal â€Å"Imagination, Cognition and Personality† while Goleman, (1995) brought EI to the characteristic and developed his own model of EI. Ultimately, the concept of EI has been expanded and applied to numerous disciplines including services (e.g. Sales, Hospitality, banking, and school and information services etc). The evolving of EI as described in 2.1 below. 2.1.2.1 Social Intelligence Social intelligence can be defined differently. Social intelligence can be defined as â€Å"the ability to understand and manage people to act wisely in human relations† (Thorndike, 1920, p. 228). Nevertheless, in the late 1930s, Thorndike and Stein (1937) altered the earlier definition of social intelligence to read, the â€Å"ability to understand and manage people† while a few years later, Gardner (1983) outlined his theory of multiple intelligences and he described in detail seven â€Å"relatively autonomous† of human intellectual competences (eg; linguistic, logical-mathematical, spatial, musical, personal, interpersonal, and intrapersonal). Likewise, Moss and Hunt (1927) described social intelligence as the ability to get along with others (p. 108). Six years later as Vernon (1933), defined the social intelligence as the persons ability to get along with people in general, social technique or ease in society, knowledge of social matters, susceptibility to s timuli from other members of a group, as well as insight into the temporary moods or underlying personality traits of strangers (p. 44). It was recognised by Maulding (2002) that EI was closely related to personal intelligence and was further qualified by Gardner with is employment of two personal intelligence aspects; intrapersonal and interpersonal. Intrapersonal intelligence was further depicted by Gardner as the capacity to be discriminating among ones feelings; to label them, and use them in ways to understand and guide ones behavior and interpersonal intelligence as â€Å"turns outward, to other individuals†. This focal point examined â€Å"the ability to notice and make distinctions among other individuals, and in particular, among their moods, temperaments, motivations, and intentions†. Thus â€Å"Personal Intelligence† covers the close relationship of both intrapersonal and interpersonal intelligence because, as Gardner noted, â€Å"these two forms of knowledge are intimately intermingled†. 2.1.2.1 Intelligence There were numerous outstanding theorists were asked to define intelligence; unfortunate some definitions were obtained (Sternberg Detterman, 1986) differently. White (2002) clarification, ‘In philosophical works we can find discussions of consciousness, perception and sensation, thought, action, memory, emotion and imagination, but rarely anything on intelligence (White, 2002, p.78). In other words, Hand (2004) discussed the concept of Intelligence that is in general as stipulating technical senses and attempting to describe the ordinary sense. In contrast (Neisser et al., 1996) described intelligence are attempts to clarify and organize a vast array of phenomena that include: â€Å"the ability to understand complex ideas, to adapt effectively to environments, to learn from experience, to engage in various forms of reasoning, to overcome obstacles by taking thought†. Even when experts in intelligence discuss the definition there appears more controversy than consensus (Matthews et al., 2002). Unlike other definitions of intelligence, Wechsler (1958) described intelligence as â€Å"the aggregate or the global capacity of the individual to act purposely, to think rationally, and to deal effectively with his environment†. Although many definitions were given by different authors, however, many studies of intelligence, in particular the psychometric approach, have provided a â€Å"predictor† of success (Mayer, Salovey, Caruso, 2000). 2.1.2.2 Emotions Emotion can be categorized as part of Social Intelligence was introduced by Gardner in 1930. The science of emotion has been problematic and is impeded with the complexities of linking tangible realities to the elusive, subjective, and experiential nature of emotions (Matthews et al., 2002). In the context of psychology, Salovey and Mayer provided a definition of emotions as: Organized responses crossing boundaries of many psychological subsystems, including physiological, cognitive, motivational and experiential systems. Emotions typically arise in response to an event, either internal or external, that has a positively or negatively balanced meaning for an individual. Emotions can be distinguished from the closely related concept of mood in that emotions are shorter and generally more intense (1990, p. 186). 2.1.2.3 Emotional Intelligence Mayer and Salovey (1990) wrote an article and outlining their EI framework. EI was listed by them at that time as a division of social intelligence. Elements of Gardners personal intelligence study were employed when Mayer and Salovey defined EI as â€Å"the ability to monitor ones own and others feelings, to discriminate amongst them and to use this information to guide ones thinking and actions† (p. 189). The book entitled EI (1995) was published as a way of coping with the pointless acts that were taking place, (Salopek, 1998) and became the best seller status. After that the interest in EI took place (Mandell Pherwani, 2003). Goleman persistent on this success in 1998 with a book entitled Working with EI where he reviewed 18 EI competencies usable in the workplace. Mayer and Saloveys (1990) definition of EI were modified by Goleman (1998c) with his revised definition of EI, â€Å" ‘EI refers to the capacity for recognizing our own feelings and those of others, for motivating ourselves, and for managing emotions well in ourselves and in our relationships† p317). Goleman listed 5 social and emotional groups self-awareness, self-regulation, motivation, empathy, and social skills. This was subsequently reduced to just 4 after the arrival and review of new information. He continues to refine his model and emphasize a mixture of interpersonal intelligence and intrapersonal intelligence in defining EI and employed the four clusters (Maulding, 2002). The 4 new groups were labelled as self-awareness, self-management, social awareness, and relationship management (Goleman, Boyatzis, McKee, 2002). Self-awareness and self-management were merged into a â€Å"personal competence† category which included the capabilities that â€Å"determine how we manage ourselves† (Goleman, Boyatzis, McKee, 2002, p. 39). The capabilities that â€Å"determine how we manage relationships† define the Social Competency category (Goleman, Boyatzis, McKee, 2002, p. 39) and include the social awareness and relationship management groups. In the context of thois study, researcher will use the GolemansModel as baseline or guideline to develop EI measurement for librarians. Yet a few competencies related to Malaysian public librarian nature will be considered (eg, spiritual, information literacy, Islamic values ect.) in the new model. Table 2.1 Five Periods of Development in Emotions and Intelligence in the Past Century Period The Emergence of The EI Concept 1900-1969 (Thorndike, 1920) Intelligence and Emotions as Separate Narrow Fields Psychometric approach to intelligence is developed and refined.  · Movement from Darwins theory for heritability and evolution of emotional responses to now being viewed as culturally determined.  · Social Intelligence (Thorndike, 1920) as the concept is introduced. 1970-1989 (David Wechsler, 1940) Non-intellective aspects of general intelligence The field of cognition and affect emerged to examine how emotions interacted with thoughts.  · Gardner (1983) theory of multiple intelligences described an intrapersonal and an interpersonal intelligence.  · Empirical work on social intelligence developed four components: social skills, empathy skills, pro-social attitudes, and emotionality (sensitivity). 1990-1993 (Gardner, 1983) Multiple intelligences; interpersonal intelligence-people smart; intrapersonal intelligence-self-smart Mayer and Salovey publish a series of articles on EI.  · First ability measure of EI published.  · Editor of the journal Intelligence argued for an existence of EI.  · Further developments for EI in the brain sciences. 1994-1997 (Goleman 1995) The Popularization and Broadening EQ  · Goleman (1995) publishes EI which becomes worldwide best-seller.  · Time magazine used the term â€Å"EQ† on its cover (Gibbs, 1995, October 2).  · Measures of EI using mixed model theories were published. 1998-Present (Peter Salovey Jack Mayer, 1990 EI  · Refinements to the concept of EI.  · New measures of EI introduced.  · Appearance of peer-reviewed articles on the subject. 2.2.4 2.2 Model of EI 2.2.1 Introduction There are many researchers that exist within the area of intelligences developed several models and theories to address EI (Gardner, 1990; Bar-On, 2008; Bernet, 1996; Brown, 1999; Brualdi, 1996; Burgess, Palmer, Stough Walls, 2001; Caruso, Mayer, Perkins Salovey, 1999; Cherniss, 2007; Ciarrochi, Chan, Caputi, Roberts, 2001; Dulewicz Higgs, 2000; Finegan, 1998; Gardner, 1995; Goleman, 1995; Goleman, 1998; Goleman, 2008; Langley, 2000; Mayer Geher, 2007; Mayer, Caruso Salovey, 2003; Mayer, Salovey Caruso, 2000; Mayer, 2001; Mayer, Salovey, Caruso, Sitarenios, 2001; Mayer, Perkins, Caruso Salovey, 2001; McDowelle Bell, 2000; Pfeiffer, 2001; Reiff, Hates, Bramel, 2001; Salovey Mayer, 1990; Salovey Sluyter, 1997; Weiss, 2000). The model of EI is comprised into two types; the ability model and mixed model. a) Ability model can be defined, EI as a set of mental abilities and constructs claims about the importance of emotional information and the potential uses of reasoning well with that information. Representatives of this model are Mayer and Salovey (1997) with four-branch model of EI. b) mixed model, whereas more commonly orienting and mixes mental abilities with personality attributes. Model from Goleman (2001), Cooper Sawaf (1997) and Bar-on (1997) are representatives for mixed model, but they expanded the meaning of EI by explicitly mixing the ability to understand and process emotion with other diverse parts of personality or skills, hence creating mixed approaches to EI. On the other word, the mixed model is defined as a combination of non cognitive abilities, personality traits and competencies (Goldsmith, 2008). 2.2.2 Models Assessing Emotional Intelligence 2.1.2 Bar-Ons Model of EI Bar-On reports that the EQ-i â€Å"was originally constructed as an experimental instrument designed to examine the concept of emotional and social functioning in the early 1980s (Bar-On, 2001, p.363). He created the term emotional quotient (EQ) to describe his mixed approach to the evaluation of an individuals general intelligence. He explained that the emotional quotient reflects our ability to operate successfully with other people and with our feelings (Bar-On, 2001). Bar-On developed the Bar-On EQ-i and instrument has been translated into twenty-two languages and normative data has been collected in more than fifteen countries (Bar-On, 2001). This EI inventory is the first scientifically developed and validated measure of EI that reflects ones ability to deal with environmental challenges and helps to predict ones success in life, including professional and personal pursuits (AbiSamra, 2000 and Bar-on, 2001). This model is separated into five different scales with fifteen subscales as detailed in Table 2.3. The first of these scales assess an individuals Intrapersonal EQ which consists of self-regard, emotional self-awareness, assertiveness, independence and self- actualization. The second scale assesses the individuals Interpersonal EQ consisting of empathy, social responsibility, and interpersonal relationships. Adaptability EQ is the third measure of Bar-Ons scale. This scale focuses on reality testing, flexibility and problem solving or how an individual handles emotion in the moment. The fourth scale assesses an individuals Stress Management EQ. This scale is comprised of stress tolerance and impulse control. The fifth and final scale of the EQ-i measures an individuals General Mood EQ, consisting of optimism and happiness. Bar-On reports that the research â€Å"findings obtained to date suggest that the EQ-i is measuring emotional and social intelligence†¦more specifically, the EQ-i is tapping the ability to be aware of, understand, control, and express emotions† (Bar-On, 2001, pp.372 -373). This ability model created by Bar-On is a selection of emotional, personal and social abilities that affect an individuals overall ability to manage the daily pressures and demands of life. Bar-On further reports that the ability is â€Å"apparently based on a core capacity to be aware of, understand, control and express emotions effectively† (p.374). Although Bar-Ons early research focused on the emotional quotient, it was not until the 1990s that EI truly began to receive recognition as a distinct form of intelligence (Geher, Warner Brown, 2001; Salovey Sluyter, 1997). The concept of an individuals EI (EI) was explained and expanded upon by Mayer and Salovey in 1990 (Mayer, Perkins, Caruso S alovey, 2001), and popularized by Daniel Goleman in 1995 (Goleman, 1995). 2.1.3 Golemans In 1995, Goleman elaborated on the original Salovey Mayer definition of EI to suggest five major EI domains as reported in Table 4. Table 4: Golemans original model of EI. Golemans Model of EI 1. Assessment of emotions 2. Regulation of emotions 3. Motivating and emotional self control 4. Understanding and recognizing emotions 5. Relationships and emotions The first of Golemans EI domains includes knowing ones emotions. This domain involves assessing and knowing what the emotion is as it occurs. The second domain of managing emotions is described as handling those emotions in an appropriate manner that builds on self-awareness. Motivating oneself or emotional self-control is the third domain. The fourth domain involves recognizing emotions in others. This domain involves empathy and Goleman considers it to be a â€Å"people skill† (Goleman, 1995, p.43). The last domain in Golemans original model consists of handling relationships. Goleman states that the ability of handling a relationship is in part the ability of managing emotions in others. Goleman contends that capacities for EI each have a distinctive involvement to form our lives. To some extent, these capacities build upon one another to formulate social skills. These abilities do not guarantee that people will develop or display emotional competencies. Goleman suggests th at individuals use competencies in many areas across many spectrums. Goleman has currently revised his original theory of EI as shown in Table 5. He now suggests that there are four domains rather than his original five domains (Goleman, 2001B). Table 5: Golemans current model of EI. Golemans Current Model of EI 1. Emotional Self Awareness 2. Emotional Self Management 3. Social Awareness 4. Relationship Management The first component or cluster of EI is that of Emotional Self- Awareness, or knowing what one feels. Recognizing ones own feelings, how they affect ones performance, and the realization of our own strengths as well as our weaknesses, is an important part of the self-awareness cluster. The second component of EI is Emotional Self-Management. This component reflects the ability to regulate stressful affects such as anxiety or anger, as well as how to deal with those situations. This component is reflected when an individual seems to keep their cool during a stressful situation. Self-management also reflects the abilities of an individual to be flexible and adaptable, looking at different perspectives of a situation. Social-Awareness, the third component, encompasses the competency of empathy. The Social-Awareness cluster is described as the cluster where an individual is aware of others emotions, concerns, and needs. Being aware of this information and internally processing it, allows the individual to read situations and act accordingly. The Relationship Management component makes up the fourth segment of Golemans current model. This component relates to how we interact with others in emotional situations. Goleman believes that if we cannot control our emotional outbursts and impulses, and we lack the necessary skill of empathy, there is less chance that we will be effective in our relationships. The Relationship Management cluster includes many of the skills necessary for being successful in social situations. Communication is also an essential element in the relationship management cluster (Goleman, 2001b). According to Goleman (2001a), EI at its most general rating, refers to the abilities to identify, reflect and adjust emotions in ourselves as well as to be aware of the emotions of others. Currently, Goleman relates the capacities for each domain in his EI model are: makes a unique contribution to job performance; strong communications; capacities build upon one another; does not guarantee people will develop or display the associated competencies; The general list is to some extent applicable to all jobs. Although Goleman explains that these capacities are hierarchical, meaning that one cannot fully pass on to the next phase or tier without accomplishing the previous stage with some degree of success. These capacities are not fixed and an individual can experience many levels at the same time. Goleman (1998) also states that EI determines our potential for learning the practical skills that underlie the four EI clusters. He maintains that emotional competence illustrates how much of that potential we have realized by learning and mastering skills and translating EI into on the job capabilities. According to Hall Torrance (1980), empathy and super-awareness to the needs of others is a trait that lies outside the realm of human abilities that can be measured. Hall Torrance report that many attempts have been made to measure these abilities, but with very little success. In their view, if empathy and awareness to others needs were accessed in a way that was based on reasoning, those qualities may reflect a measurable intellectual ability that would be associated with friendliness, compassion and happiness; all traits reported to be representative characteristics of emotionally intelligent individuals (Goleman, 1995; Pfeiffer, 2001). The information reported in 1980 by Hall and Torrance was prescient in that these traits are currently being measured as traits of EI. The traits of flexibility and freedom of thoughts as well as a high rating of motivation, either intrinsic or extrinsic, the ability to express emotion, the ability to manage stress, self confidence, and the ability to cope with tension are also valued characteristics of EI (Caruso, Mayer, Perkins, Salovey, 1999; Cherniss, 1998; Goleman, 1995, 1997; Levinson, 1997; Olszewski-Kubilius, 2000; Pfeiffer, 2001; Reiff, Hates Bramel, 2001). Currently, Goleman emphasizes that EI at its most general rating, refers to the abilities to identify, reflect and adjust emotions in ourselves as well as to be aware of the emotions of others (Cherniss Goleman, 2001; Goleman, 2001A). According to Goleman, EI refers to the ability to recognize our own feelings and those of others, to motivate ourselves, and to manage emotions in ourselves and in our relationships. (Clawson 1999; Dulewicz Higgs 2000; Goleman 1998; Burgess, Palmer, Stough Walls 2001). In another cognitive research study conducted by Sternberg, Wagner, Williams, and Horvath (cited in McDowelle Bell, 1998) it is reported that these differences in IQ and success at work accounted for between 4% and 25% variance of job performance. This leads us to the conclusion that a major part of what enhances our job performance is affected by non-IQ factors. McDowelle Bell (1998) state â€Å"emotionality and rationality complement each other in the work world. They can be viewe d as inseparable parts of the life of the organization. 2.1.4 Salovey and Mayers Since the origination of the theory of EI in 1990, Mayer and Salovey have worked diligently to refine their academic and scientific model of EI model. Their current model, developed in 1997, is decidedly cognitive in focus and revolves around four tiers or ratings that are not genetically fixed or set in early childhood. As people grow and develop, they also seem to develop a greater sense of EI suggesting that these traits of EI can be developed over time (Epstein, 1999; Ford-Martin, 2001; Goleman, 2001A; Weiss, 2000). According to Mayer, Perkins, Caruso Salovey (2001), the emotionally intelligent person is skilled in four distinct branches: identifying, using, understanding, and regulating emotions. These four distinct areas are outlined in Mayer and Saloveys current model. The newest model begins with the idea that emotions contain information about relationships (Mayer, Salovey, Caruso, and Sitarenios (2001). (See Table 6). The recognition, the evaluation and the communication of emotions initiate the first branch of Mayer and Saloveys model. The second branch involves using emotions to think constructively such as utilizing those emotions to make judgments, the consideration of an alternative viewpoint, and an appreciation that a change in emotional state and point of view can promote various types of solutions to problems. The third branch combines the abilities of classifying and differentiating between emotions to help integrate different feelings. This rating also works toward helping us t o form rules about the feelings we experience. The fourth and final branch involves the ability to take the emotions we experience and use them in support of a social goal (Finegan, 1998; Cherniss Goleman, 2001). The four hierarchical developmental branches established by Mayer and Salovey in 1997, although different from Golemans ratings of EI, seem to incorporate several fundamental principles of personal development theory. These developmental stages discussed by Salovey and Mayer are reported to be hierarchical. The Mayer and Salovey model frames the complexity of emotional skills that develop from the first tier and continue through the fourth, whereas Golemans competencies, in contrast, can be viewed along a continuum of mastery. Caruso, Mayer, Perkins, Salovey (2001), expected individuals need to be able to identify their emotions as well as the emotions of others. Using those emotions, understanding those emotions, and having the ability to manage those emotions is also required to be successful. Caruso et al. (2001) relate that when an individual works in an administrative or work environment that requires the cooperation and collaboration, the skills of EI become even more essential. Caruso et al. (2001) also report that EI can assist in facilitating this work in helping to generate new and creative ideas and solutions to problems. At times, some of the problems that are challenging an individual can be very complex, while at other times the problem-solving task may be effortless. According to Caruso et al. (2001), problem solving requires creative thought to generate ideal solutions. Caruso et al. (2001) deduce that EI can help the individual to think creatively in many ways such as, viewing the problem from multiple perspectives, brainstorming or generating new and creative ideas, being inventive, generating original ideas and solutions to the problem, and defining and recognizing new solutions. Table 2.3: Characteristics of Selected EI Model Bar-On (1980) Mixed Model Goleman (2005) Performance Model Mayer, Caruso and Salovey (1990) Ability Model (1) Awareness, Intrapersonal Assertiveness, EQ Self-Regard,